The Succession Crisis That Tore England Apart

Sep 13, 2026 10:18 AM - 2 hours ago 2

Stephen (left) and Henry II, from Les Roys de Engeltere, Anglo-Norman manuscript, precocious 13th century.

In the summertime of 1153 a surgery man agreed to disinherit his son, successful bid to extremity a warfare that had splintered England into pieces for 19 years. The English reign of King Stephen (1135-54) was a disaster from commencement to finish, a clip of specified chaos that it was later dubbed ‘the Anarchy’. The inheritance to the conflict is good known: Henry I, having mislaid his only morganatic boy successful the wreck of the White Ship successful 1120, named his girl Matilda arsenic his heir. She was astatine the clip domiciled successful Germany arsenic the woman and consort of Emperor Henry V, but his early decease successful 1125, leaving Matilda childless, allowed her to return to Normandy and past England successful bid to position herself arsenic heir to the English throne successful her ain right. Designating a female arsenic his successor was specified an unprecedented action that Henry felt obliged to compel his nobles, barons and churchmen to committedness an oath of allegiance to Matilda. All of them did so, though immoderate complied pinch greater reluctance than others.

Henry’s decease successful December 1135 cannot really beryllium classed arsenic unexpected, fixed that he was successful his precocious sixties astatine the time, but it was abrupt capable that Matilda was not astatine his bedside and did not moreover cognize of it for astatine slightest a mates of weeks, by which clip her relative Stephen (a younger boy of Henry’s sister Adela, dowager countess of Blois) had rushed to England, seized the royal treasury and had himself crowned. There was hardly a murmur from immoderate of those who had sworn to uphold Matilda’s hereditary rights, which was wholly owed to her being female: had Henry near the crown to a 33-year-old, intelligent, well-educated, politically knowledgeable son, specified a business would not person arisen.

Hampered by gestation – her 3rd by her 2nd husband, Count Geoffrey of Anjou – and a deficiency of means, Matilda could astatine first do thing astir Stephen usurping the throne. However, aft a mates of years she was capable to marshal her resources, aided by the defection to her origin successful 1138 of her illegitimate but rich | and powerful half-brother Robert, the earl of Gloucester. She sailed for England successful September 1139, and the first progressive shape of the warfare began.

No king – aliases queen regnant – could norm without the support of the nobles and barons, and to statesman pinch location was a stark divide. On Matilda’s broadside were those magnates who had been Henry I’s loyal men and who wished, nevertheless belatedly, to transportation retired his wishes by installing her connected the throne arsenic his only surviving morganatic child. Against them were those who preferred Stephen arsenic a known (and, crucially, male) quantity. The nobles connected some sides were also, of course, motivated by the imaginable of individual gain: arsenic and erstwhile their campaigner was successful, they could expect to beryllium rewarded for their loyal service. And stuck successful the mediate of each this was the organization of England, the families who tilled the land, manufactured and traded, and who besides paid taxes and were liable to beryllium called up to conflict for their section lords whether they liked it aliases not.

The sinking of the White Ship from Peter Langtoft’s Chronicle of England, early 14th century.

King aliases queen?

The first hint of a plaything distant from Stephen was caused by the king himself. In the 4 years he had been connected the throne, Stephen had proven himself ineffective, spending overmuch of his clip rushing up and down the kingdom quelling small-scale revolts, and past showing specified undue leniency that it simply encouraged further dissent and gave his supporters little assurance successful him. The astir pro-Stephen of the modern chroniclers put this down to the king’s desire ‘to settee each things successful the emotion of bid and concord alternatively than promote the schism of discord successful immoderate wise’, but different noted baldly that ‘he did not execute reward connected those who had betrayed him’, and that this undue clemency would travel backmost to haunt him.

Matilda, successful contrast, proved herself much tenacious than anyone expected. Her run did not fizzle retired almost immediately, arsenic immoderate f her opponents had hoped aliases expected; alternatively she gained ground, consolidated and prompted a number of defections. Some of this astatine slightest was owed to her individual qualities – her original supporters mightiness person been Henry I’s loyal men, but they would not person stayed pinch her, and others would not person joined her cause, if they did not respect her character. There was besides a displacement successful governmental momentum. The longer Matilda’s run went on, and the much she destabilised Stephen’s kingship, the greater was her chance of winning the crown, which successful move meant that it was advantageous for the barons to beryllium connected her broadside and to beryllium seen to beryllium there.

The pivotal infinitesimal came successful February 1141, erstwhile Stephen’s service was defeated astatine the Battle of Lincoln and the king was captured and imprisoned. It was astatine this constituent that the astir high-profile defection of each occurred: Stephen’s ain relative Henry of Blois, the bishop of Winchester, switched sides and declared Matilda ‘Lady of the English’ earlier her expected coronation arsenic queen. With Stephen seemingly permanently retired of the picture, his supporters were forced to reconsider their priorities.

However, moreover specified a decisive subject triumph was not capable to overturn a genuinely deep-seated prejudice against a female monarch. Matilda now became the taxable of moreover much unfavourable attention, peculiarly from the dispute writer of the Gesta Stephani (Deeds of Stephen), who offered immoderate explicitly gendered criticism. He tells america that Matilda:

at erstwhile put connected an highly arrogant demeanour alternatively of the humble gait and base due to the gentle sex, began to locomotion and speak and do each things much stiffly and haughtily than she had been wont … she arranged everything arsenic she herself thought fresh and according to her ain arbitrary will.

The double standards are evident erstwhile we see that each of this would sound ludicrous if aimed astatine a man who had been proclaimed king, but successful the discourse of the clip the disapproval did its job: Matilda was chased retired of London and her chance of coronation had gone.

King Stephen connected his throne, from Peter Langtoft’s Lament of Edward II, c.1315.

Battle of the spouses

The personification doing the chasing was Queen Matilda, Stephen’s wife, and this illustrates the important constituent that the English monarchy successful the 12th period was hereditary and dynastic: the king did not guidelines wholly unsocial but was supported by family and (in mentation astatine least) everyone knew successful beforehand who was going to beryllium wearing the crown next.

In this familial respect some awesome protagonists had advantages and disadvantages. Each had a spouse, and Stephen’s wife, Matilda of Boulogne, was his top asset. She was a queen successful the accepted mould: supportive of, and subordinate to, her husband, tin of emerging from the shadows to enactment decisively erstwhile basal – arsenic she did now successful taking up arms and pursuing Matilda retired of London – but happy to slice backmost into them afterwards. This is why the aforesaid writer who criticised Empress Matilda for her deficiency of feminine behaviour could, without evident irony, praise Queen Matilda arsenic ‘a female of man’s resolution’: she was acting purely to support her husband, moreover though she was being truthful ostensibly unfeminine arsenic to springiness orders that her troops ‘should rage astir furiously astir the metropolis pinch plunder and arson, unit and the sword’.

Matilda’s husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, successful contrast, was unpopular. As count of Anjou he had ever been seen arsenic an antagonist by the barons of Normandy, who were successful ample portion besides the barons of England. Moreover, location was awesome uncertainty complete what his domiciled would beryllium if Matilda were to beryllium crowned – would he beryllium the king of England jure uxoris, successful correct of his wife, successful the aforesaid measurement that a nobleman could wed an heiress and go an earl successful her name? Or was he simply a subject commandant acting connected her behalf, successful which lawsuit his subordinate position to his woman was against the earthy order?

As it happened, Geoffrey appeared to show very small liking successful Matilda’s claims successful England, preferring alternatively to costs a dogged and effective run to conquer Normandy – a long-held ambition of his ain but 1 he could now effort pinch a clear conscience arsenic he was joined to the hereditary duchess of Normandy. Perhaps inadvertently, this proved useful: it kept Geoffrey good distant from England and immoderate imaginable complications there, and it besides weakened Stephen’s position successful the duchy, making him little celebrated pinch magnates who held lands connected some sides of the Channel. It would make their lives easier if they had only 1 overlord successful England and successful Normandy, truthful Geoffrey’s successes successful the latter, during the mid-1140s, made Matilda a much charismatic imaginable successful the former.

Both Stephen and Matilda had children, and this was different important facet successful the struggle for the crown. Had either of them been childless it would person weakened their position considerably, because moreover if they were victorious now they would person nary clear successor, and the existent business would only beryllium replicated a fewer years down the statement – thing each parties were keen to avoid. Stephen had 1 daughter, who was a professed nun, and 2 sons. Eustace, his heir, was the antithesis of his affable father: erratic, convulsive and not overmuch liked. Matilda had 3 sons, the eldest of whom, Henry, was eager and showed a awesome woody of inaugural from a young age. He launched his ain penetration of England successful 1147, erstwhile he was only 14; it had small subject success, but his audacity impressed the English barons and reminded them that Henry I did person a antheral heir successful his nonstop line. Despite his ill-advised actions, young Henry abruptly became Matilda’s main asset, and the cogs of the top governmental displacement of each began to easiness into motion.

Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II successful a 14th-century manuscript of the Lancelot-Grail.

Wasteland

By the precocious 1140s the warfare had been going connected for truthful agelong that virtually everyone successful England conscionable wanted a swift extremity to it, sloppy of the existent outcome. The communal group who made up the mostly of the organization had seen their lands devastated, their livelihoods ruined and moreover their lives endangered. Their sufferings were truthful acute that they were remarked upon galore times by modern chroniclers, who usually had small attraction to spare for the little classes. One wrote that ‘in each parts of the kingdom and state [there was] pillage of the poor, bulldoze of men and usurpation of churches’, while different made the celebrated study that ‘never earlier was location much wretchedness successful the onshore … wherever men tilled, the world bore nary maize because the onshore was each done for by specified doings; and they said openly that Christ and His saints slept’.

The commoners, of course, could do small astir this, but the knock-on effects soon reached higher up, pinch nobles incapable to cod rents and result suffering financial losses that meant they struggled to support troops successful the field. Overall, taxation revenues successful England fell by a 4th during the play of the Anarchy, pinch the nonaccomplishment being put down simply to ‘waste’, and the kingdom was so successful threat of becoming a wasteland, a charred ruin hardly worthy ruling over. Ravaging the estates of one’s opponents was an accepted portion of war, but successful this lawsuit location was nary existent ‘enemy territory’: some sides were devastating the lands and the livelihoods of the group complete whom they sought to rule.

But arsenic agelong arsenic the barons remained divided almost precisely successful half, location could beryllium nary resolution; neither broadside was beardown capable to prevail. What was needed was a decisive plaything successful the governmental momentum, and now the dynastic quality of 12th-century kingship came to the rescue.

Battle of the heirs

At the opening of the warfare the mobility had been who should deterioration the crown now, but arsenic the years went by an expanding interest was who would deterioration it next. The basal reply was the evident one: if Stephen prevailed he would beryllium followed by Eustace, whereas Matilda would beryllium succeeded by Henry. Thus successful pledging their allegiance to 1 main aliases the other, the barons were besides promising to support the applicable heir. The problem pinch this was – to simplify a small – that the celebrated choices for now and later were from different sides: Stephen and Henry.

The first drift of nationalist sentiment connected this constituent soon began to solidify. Eustace was unstable and unpopular; he and his cronies seemed to bask the unit they had licence to create, and they ‘took and plundered everything they came upon, group occurrence to houses and churches, and, what was a much sadistic and sadistic sight, fired the crops that had been reaped and stacked each complete the fields’. This did not thief the livelihoods of the commoners, which successful move disadvanaged the finances of the nobles. It was a short measurement from location to the thought that Eustace’s royal declare was spurious, arsenic Stephen had usurped the throne from the nonstop statement of Henry I, and that this correction needed to beryllium corrected successful the adjacent generation.

The younger Henry, meanwhile, was proving himself adept astatine gaining and retaining supporters, and this made it easier for him to beryllium depicted arsenic the existent heir, a nonstop descendant of Henry I, the aged king whose reign was by now being looked backmost connected pinch a bully woody of nostalgia. The measurement the upwind was blowing successful the precocious 1140s is illustrated by the hitherto pro-Stephen Gesta Stephani. Up until this constituent the writer had ever referred to Empress Matilda and Henry arsenic ‘the countess of Anjou and her son’; now he originates to telephone Henry ‘the lawful heir’ to England and ceases to mention Matilda astatine all.

This caller but prevailing cognition gave the barons the get-out clause they were looking for. Henry was surely the rightful king, aliases astatine slightest the rightful heir, and he had the notable advantage of being male, truthful his declare did not transportation each the attendant baggage of Matilda’s. But if hereditary rule were to clasp existent past he could not beryllium the king now, because he derived his correct from his mother and she was still alive. Matilda did, successful fact, thief her son’s origin by being self-aware capable to discontinue England permanently successful 1148 and time off him to it, but still she existed and truthful technically a ballot for Henry would mean ousting Stephen successful Matilda’s favour. A measurement astir this needed to beryllium found: Henry was popular, youthful and energetic, a awesome opposition to the progressively tired and ineffective Stephen, and surely a amended early imaginable than Eustace. As the 1150s dawned, Henry’s origin needed conscionable 1 much push.

Henry V and Empress Matilda astatine their wedding feast, from the chronicle of Ekkehard of Aura, early 12th century.

A nonaccomplishment of heart

The end, erstwhile it came, was not the consequence of a awesome conflict but alternatively of a nonaccomplishment of bosom each round. Stephen’s top protagonist was not his boy but his wife, and he was devastated erstwhile she died successful 1152. Then, successful the summertime of 1153, location was a stand-off astatine Wallingford – the tract of overmuch conflict complete the galore years of the warfare – astatine which the barons connected some sides simply refused to fight. Stephen and Henry were forced to negotiate, and the result was 1 that satisfied almost everyone: Stephen would stay king for the remainder of his life, but he would beryllium succeeded connected the throne by Henry, alternatively than by Eustace. In bid to quadrate the hereditary circle, Stephen announced astatine Christmas 1153 that he was adopting Henry arsenic his boy – thing of an reproach to Empress Matilda, but 1 she could unrecorded pinch if it meant Henry wearing the English crown.

Following this statement made astatine Wallingford, and the resultant Treaty of Winchester, the communicative of the drawn-out Anarchy ended pinch an almost shocking rapidity. This was principally owed to Henry benefiting from 2 unthinkable strokes of luck (or, arsenic his supporters preferred to deliberation of it, signs of God’s favour). First, Eustace died successful August 1153: abruptly and unexpectedly, only successful his early twenties, but nevertheless apparently of earthy causes. This removed the 1 awesome remaining obstacle successful Henry’s path, for Eustace had been enraged by the statement that disinherited him and looked group to proceed the warfare successful his ain sanction moreover if his begetter had backed down.

Nobody was moreover vaguely willing successful raising banners successful the sanction of Stephen’s 2nd son, William of Blois, who had ne'er expected to inherit the crown successful immoderate case, and who was bought disconnected pinch the committedness of lands and riches. Henry, who was already duke of Normandy successful his ain correct and duke of Aquitaine by marriage, now only had to hold – and his 2nd portion of bully luck was that he did not person to hold very long, because Stephen himself died successful October 1154.

Peace

For the first clip since 1066, the decease of an English king did not consequence successful an undignified scramble for the throne: Henry was successful Normandy erstwhile the news reached him, but he took his clip and did not sail until 7 December. In the intervening play location was not moreover a hint of dissent successful England, which was ‘perfectly tranquil, retired of the emotion and fearfulness which it bore towards Duke Henry, whose accession to the throne nary 1 called successful question’. The 21-year-old Henry was crowned connected 19 December 1154, alongside his pregnant wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and pinch a boy already safely successful the royal nursery. Dynastic norm successful the nonstop statement of Henry I had returned to England.

Catherine Hanley is the writer of Matilda: Empress, Queen, Warrior (Yale University Press, 2019).