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gawain requires category annotations on the variables, parameters, returns and category attributes of Python code, then runs a category checker, ty or pyrefly, to inspect that the types are correct.

Type checkers specified as mypy, Pyright, ty and pyrefly infer the category of a changeable that has no annotation. ruff's ANN rules and flake8-annotations ask for annotations on functions only. gawain additionally asks for them on variables and class attributes.

I built gawain lone since I dislike dict[str, Any] and wanted to do item concerning it. If your answer to this is "but Python already infers that" or "but my IDE infers it for me", afterward don't use it, small padawan.

Given shop.py:

PORT = 8080 retries = 3 total = compute() def send(to, body): print(f"to {to}: {body}") class Order: def __init__(self, items: list[str]) -> None: self.items = items

gawain inspect shop.py prints:

[presence] shop.py:1:1 GW001 changeable 'PORT' has no category annotation shop.py:3:1 GW001 changeable 'total' has no category annotation shop.py:6:5 GW003 function 'send' has no come back category annotation shop.py:6:10 GW002 indicator 'to' of function 'send' has no category annotation shop.py:6:14 GW002 indicator 'body' of function 'send' has no category annotation shop.py:12:14 GW004 trait 'items' is not declared in the build of category 'Order' 6 errors (presence). Type inspect skipped until existence errors are fixed. 

retries = 3 passes, since a literal has an apparent type. PORT is a constant, so it needs Final[int].

When all note is in place, gawain runs the category checker on the identical records and prints what it reports. With ty, the default, for prices.py:

def total(prices: list[int]) -> int: return "0"

[types] prices.py:2:12 ty[invalid-return-type] Return category does not equivalent returned value: expected `int`, established `Literal["0"]` 1 error (types). 

Install gawain alongside the additional of the category checker you want. ty is the default checker, and the ty additional pins it to 0.0.100:

uv tool instal "gawain[ty]" # or pip instal "gawain[ty]"

To use pyrefly instead, instal the pyrefly extra, which pins pyrefly 1.4.1 and does not instal ty:

uv tool instal "gawain[pyrefly]" # or pip instal "gawain[pyrefly]"

Then choose it alongside checker = "pyrefly" in [tool.gawain], or alongside --checker pyrefly. docs/configuration.md explains the switch.

pip instal gawain without an additional installs lone the gawain command. It afterward needs a checker on PATH, or --no-types to run the note checks only.

gawain inspect src/ # annotations, afterward types gawain inspect src/ --no-types # annotations only gawain inspect src/ --checker pyrefly # pyrefly alternatively of ty gawain inspect src/ --mode strict # an note on all assignment gawain inspect src/ --format json # one JSON object, for tools

gawain exits alongside 0 whenever nothing is reported, 1 whenever it reports an error, and 2 on a use error or when the category checker cannot run. The category checker's warnings are printed but do not neglect the check.

GW000 marks a document gawain cannot read, and GW900 and GW901 grade a damaged or unused suppression. To silence a line, name the code:

value = load() # gawain: ignore[GW001]

docs/rules.md has the complete rules, the exemptions and the suppression syntax.

The default manner is obvious. A name may go without an note whenever its value has an apparent category and the name is never assigned again: a literal (count = 0), a receptacle of literals (ids = [1, 2, 3]) or a constructor call (user = User("ada")). strict asks for an note on all assignment:

[tool.gawain] mode = "strict"

docs/rules.md has the exact rules of all mode.

repos: - repo: https://github.com/matheuzgomes/gawain rev: v0.3.0 hooks: - id: gawain

pre-commit installs the hook from this repository's source, so construction it needs Rust 1.97 or newer. docs/configuration.md covers [tool.gawain], paths and the hook in detail.

On the CPython 3.14 norm archive (1,847 files, 974,586 lines), median of 30 runs (5 for flake8-annotations):

gawain ran alongside --no-types. This is one benchmark on one device (AMD Ryzen 7 3700X, WSL2). docs/benchmarks.md has the versions and the commands to run it again.

• docs/rules.md: rules, modes, exemptions and suppression.
• docs/configuration.md: paths, output, exit codes, [tool.gawain] and pre-commit.
• docs/benchmarks.md: how the numbers complete were measured.

gawain says Python alongside ruff_python_parser and checks types with ty, the two by Astral, or alongside pyrefly, by Meta.

I don't know, I fair akin the Arthurian tales. Gawain is a knight of the Round Table, and the mascot is the Green Knight's axe alongside the green girdle from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

MIT. See LICENSE.

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turbo-browser-mcp is a Playwright-based Model Context Protocol (MCP) server built to cut LLM token discarded and multi-turn latency in browser automation. It consolidates 25-33 fine-grained browser primitives into 10 batched tools featuring delta DOM snapshots, single-turn React/Shadow DOM/iframe form prefill, straightforward disk document uploads (no Base64 in context), parallel tab sessions, network blocking presets, and a default human-in-the-loop Submit guard.

All figures below arrive from benchmarks/benchmark.mjs (npm run benchmark) operating headless Chromium locally alongside exact OpenAI o200k_base tokenization (tiktoken 0.14.0):

Note on latency vs LLM conclusion turns: Eliminating 10 round-trips on a 10-field form saves the two 7x in browser implementation (574 ms -> 82 ms) and 10 distinct LLM conclusion round-trips (2-5s per rotate in delegate loops) affirmative ~71,800 replayed former tokens.

Standard MCP servers accusation an LLM round-trip for all snapshot, site fill, <select> choice, upload, and verification check. Each rotate re-sends the expanding conversation former rear into the model.

sequenceDiagram autonumber attendee Agent as LLM Agent attendee Std as Standard MCP (Playwright / DevTools) attendee Turbo as turbo-browser-mcp Note complete Agent,Std: Standard MCP (12+ LLM turns, complete ARIA tree + former replay all step) Agent->>Std: 1. snapshot() -> complete ARIA (~3,568 tok) iteration Repeats 10+ times throughout fields, selects, checkboxes, upload Agent->>Std: inhabit / select_option / click Std-->>Agent: complete ARIA or confirmation re-added to history end Agent->>Std: 12. upload inline or click chooser Note complete Agent,Turbo: turbo-browser-mcp (2 LLM turns total, delta & inline snapshot) Agent->>Turbo: 1. inspect_compact(mode: "forms") -> compact refs (1,135 tok) Agent->>Turbo: 2. smart_fill_form(fields: [...10 sectors + disk PDF...], returnSnapshot: true) Turbo-->>Agent: Filled 10 sectors + guarded before Submit + inline snapshot (811 tok) 

• 4 association modes (--mode auto|cdp|persistent|launch):
  • auto (default): probes --cdp http://127.0.0.1:9222 archetypal so agents can reuse an existing signed-in browser session, afterward falls rear to launching Chromium.
  • cdp: nexus immediately to a operating Chromium/Chrome/Edge distant debugging port.
  • persistent: initiate alongside a reusable --user-data-dir overview throughout runs.
  • launch: commencement a spotless browser meeting (--headless by default, or --headed).
• Auto binary finding (src/playwright-loader.mjs): checks playwright-core cache revisions throughout Windows, macOS, and Linux, scheme installs of Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Brave, and Chromium, or an definitive --executable <path>.
• Per-tab isolation (tabs_batch): open tabs inner named isolatedContext sandboxes alongside distinct cookies and storage, batch-open up to 10 concurrent URLs (open_many), activate, reload, go back/forward, resize viewport, and emulate colorScheme, media, reducedMotion, contrast, forcedColors, or tradition userAgent.

• Snapshot modes: interactive, forms, article, and all.
• Cross-boundary traversal: flattens chief example DOM, kid iframes (includeFrames, frameIdx), and open Shadow DOM. Injects an init manuscript hooking Element.prototype.attachShadow (WeakMap + WeakRef/FinalizationRegistry + window.__tbmGetShadowRoot) to keep post-init closed Shadow roots inspectable and guarded, traverses <slot> assignedNodes({ flatten: true }), and supports Form-Associated Custom Elements.
• Token controls: onlyChanged: true emits lone elements added or changed since the previous snapshot; query filters by regex or substring; boxes: true adds [box=x,y,w,h] lone whenever needed; maxChars caps payload size; savePath writes complete output to disk.

Prefills an complete form in one MCP call during flushing microtasks and macrotasks between controlled inputs:

• Standard & example inputs: text, email, password, number, date, textarea, <input type="range">, checkboxes, broadcast groups (check, not, overwrite). Triggers React-controlled province updates via native asset setters and synthetic events.
• Selects & tradition widgets: <select> and <select multiple> (option / values), ARIA comboboxes, ARIA switches, contenteditable affluent editors, and Gmail create dialogs (gmail: { to, subject, build }).
• Frame & wildcard targeting: mark particular iframes via frameIdx, or set all: true to populate matching controls throughout frames.
• Direct disk uploads: continue document or records paths immediately to Playwright setInputFiles without loading binary records or Base64 strings into LLM context.
• Atomic verification: continue returnSnapshot: true to inspect the updated form province in the identical tool response.

• act_fast actions: click, dblclick, hover, focus, clear, fill, category (slowly, delayMs, submit), select, check, uncheck, drag, autumn (file, files, or tradition MIME dropData), media (key + modifiers: Alt, Control, ControlOrMeta, Meta, Shift), scroll (dx, dy), delay (ms, state, loadState, text, textGone, url), and upload.
• Targeting options: compact [eN] ref, CSS selector, apparent text, label, or viewport (x, y) coordinates, alongside clasp (left, right, middle) and frameIdx.
• batch_actions: runs an ordered catalog of DOM actions and nested smart_fill_form steps in one MCP call, stopping safely if blocked by the Submit defender or optionally continuing on stage errors (continueOnError).

• extract_clean_text: extracts readable plain content or compact Markdown (format: "text" | "markdown") from main/article containers and iframes, stripped of manuscript and manner noise.
• evaluate_js: runs JS expressions or (el, arg) component functions in any example (frameIdx) alongside JSON-serialized results and optional savePath export.
• capture_page: full-page or element-scoped screenshots (png or jpeg alongside quality, css or equipment scale, optional returnImage) and PDF generation saved to a confined savePath.

• network_session presets: turbo, no-images, no-media, and spotless (unblock all), alongside tradition blockResources and blockUrls patterns.
• Session & retention management: read/write/clear browser cookies, localStorage/sessionStorage, and export or reload complete Playwright storageState JSON records (saveStorageStatePath, loadStorageStatePath).
• page_diagnostics: defaults to errors-only (level: "errors", statusFilter: "errors") to exterior failures cleanly without flooding context, during supporting all, includeStatic, urlFilter, profound request/response inspection (reqId + part), completed downloads, and dialog auto-handling (dialogPolicy: accept/dismiss).

Run the benchmark suite yourself alongside Chromium and Playwright installed:

Environment & methodology: Headless Chromium via playwright-core, counting exact OpenAI o200k_base tokens via Python tiktoken (approx-bpe fallback if tiktoken is unavailable). Cumulative workflow tokens example norm chat-history replay throughout $N$ sequential turns: $\sum_{i=1}^{N} (N - i + 1) \cdot T_i$, affirmative a one-shot baseline anywhere the archetypal rotate captures environment before acting.

Measured against installed MCP JSON schemas on disk (compact indicator schemas without annotations):

When to keep Chrome DevTools MCP alongside turbo-browser-mcp: chrome-devtools-mcp provides Lighthouse audits, achievement trace analysis, CSS computed manner panels, and V8 heap snapshots. turbo-browser-mcp focuses on accelerated multi-step UI automation, forms, and abrasion alongside minimal token overhead.

1. Human-in-the-loop Submit Guard (allowSubmit=false by default):
   • smart_fill_form (stopBeforeSubmit: true), act_fast, and batch_actions inspect matching elements, W3C AccName labels (isSafeSubmitter), implied HTML form Enter submissions, key chords (Shift+Enter, Enter+Shift), HTMLFormElement.prototype.submit/requestSubmit, and same-origin iframe contentWindow/contentDocument proxies.
   • Final actions resembling Submit, Publish, Send, Post, Apply, Confirm, or fee triggers are blocked unless allowSubmit: true is explicitly passed or --allow-submit is enabled at startup.
   • Trade-off: pre-existing closed Shadow roots on already-open CDP tabs (attached before the init manuscript ran) or strict cross-origin sandboxed frames autumn rear to Playwright example handles, coordinate actions, and keyboard input.
2. Workspace Path Confinement (TURBO_BROWSER_SAVE_ROOT):
   • File outputs (savePath, saveStorageStatePath) and province inputs (loadStorageStatePath) are strictly confined to the current operating directory or TURBO_BROWSER_SAVE_ROOT.
   • Lexical checks, lstatSync/readlinkSync symlink verification, and realpathSync validation obstacle .. traversal, UNC network paths, dangling symlinks, cyclic symlinks, and Windows junctions before study or writing.

{ "name": "smart_fill_form", "arguments": { "fields": [ { "selector": "#full_name", "value": "Alex Nguyen" }, { "selector": "#email", "value": "alex@example.com" }, { "selector": "#country", "option": "United States" }, { "selector": "#skills", "values": ["TypeScript", "Playwright"] }, { "selector": "#agree_terms", "check": true }, { "selector": "#resume_pdf", "file": "./assets/resume.pdf" } ], "stopBeforeSubmit": true, "returnSnapshot": true } }

{ "name": "inspect_compact", "arguments": { "mode": "interactive", "onlyChanged": true, "maxChars": 3000 } }

{ "name": "tabs_batch", "arguments": { "operations": [ { "action": "open", "url": "https://example.com/app", "isolatedContext": "acct-a" }, { "action": "open_many", "urls": ["https://example.com/docs", "https://example.com/pricing"], "concurrency": 4 } ] } }

git copy https://github.com/Tthanh2k6/turbo-browser-mcp.git cd turbo-browser-mcp npm install npm run doctor

If you need Playwright's bundled Chromium (or have no scheme Chrome/Edge/Brave installed):

npx playwright-core instal chromium

Using local clone:

{ "mcpServers": { "turbo-browser": { "command": "node", "args": ["/absolute/path/to/turbo-browser-mcp/src/index.mjs"], "env": { "TURBO_BROWSER_SAVE_ROOT": "/absolute/path/to/allowed/workspace" } } } }

Using npx / binary entrypoint:

{ "mcpServers": { "turbo-browser": { "command": "npx", "args": ["-y", "turbo-browser-mcp"] } } }

In Chrome 136+/144+, enabling chrome://inspect/#remote-debugging on the default User Data directory exposes a WebSocket in DevToolsActivePort that displays an "Allow distant debugging?" immediate whenever a new WebSocket client connects. turbo-browser-mcp provides two built-in solutions so overnight AFK multi-agent runs never suspend on a prompt:

1. Automatic CDP Keep-Alive Bridge Daemon (npm run extend / --bridge, enabled automatically on DevToolsActivePort):
   • Spawns a detached backdrop multiplexer (src/cdp-bridge.mjs on http://127.0.0.1:9224) that holds one persistent upstream WebSocket to Chrome open indefinitely and intercepts Browser.close so downstream scripts never terminate your browser.
   • You click Allow formerly whenever starting your session; afterwards, any figure of MCP servers, CLI scripts, or subagents can nexus and disconnect all night alongside 0 additional prompts.
2. Zero-Prompt Dedicated Profile Launcher (npm run launch-chrome / --launch-chrome):
   • Launches Chrome alongside --remote-debugging-port=9222 and a dedicated --user-data-dir (~/.turbo-browser-mcp/chrome-profile), anywhere Chrome exposes norm HTTP/WS CDP alongside 0 confirmation dialogs equal on the extremely archetypal connection.

npm test # 407 passing tests throughout 86 suites (26 test records under test/*.test.mjs) npm run doctor # Environment inspect for Node, Playwright, Chromium, and CDP npm run extend # Start/verify persistent CDP Keep-Alive Bridge daemon npm run benchmark # Local Chromium speed & exact o200k_base token benchmark

Tested automatically on GitHub Actions (ubuntu-latest) throughout Node 20 and Node 22.

MIT

What these OSINT case studies are

Each article takes identifiers that are already community and asks two questions. How far does this location or pseudonym journey on live platforms today? And what does that instruct concerning inquiry method? Six posts prosecute one case or group, from Scattered Spider to TeamPCP. Six are guides that diagram on multiple cases to instruct one technique. Together they activity as OSINT inquiry examples alongside all input shown.

Search results are existence and overview data layered on the record. A display name or location is any the document holder typed, and none of it replaces the record.

The method in plain language

1. Start from a document that prints the identifier. An indictment, complaint, affidavit, sentencing memo, OFAC admission or named news report. Addresses that dispersed online for well-known defendants but appear in no chief origin are not searched.
2. Copy it letter by letter. Krebs printed [email protected] in 2018 and [email protected] in 2019 for the identical registration. One letter changes the result.
3. Run all email through the email lookup. It checks concerning 175 platforms and reports registrations found, affirmative the overview anywhere a phase exposes one: a GitHub handle, display name and innovation date, for example.
4. Run all pseudonym through the username search. It checks concerning 760 platforms. Any grip the email flank returned gets the identical treatment.
5. Put all date on the case timeline. Created before the pseudonym existed, during it was in use, or following the name went public.
6. Grade all outcome against the record, and log contradictions next to matches.

The case studies and guides

Khoroshev, Thomson, Coelho and Rudometov are charged, not convicted, and are presumed innocent, as is all another individual current who has not been convicted.

Six lessons that clasp throughout cases

Every example below comes from a article in the table.

1. The mundane mailbox is the one that talks

Persona addresses rarely identified anyone. The Fitzpatrick affidavit describes a Riseup location used to enroll on RaidForums; an email lookup established no registrations for it, accordant alongside that role, during the individual Gmail that Google records tie to him returned 11 registrations. In the TeamPCP case, the lookup established no registrations for the location the document ties to the BreachForums "Express" account, accordant alongside the forum-only use the document describes, during a Gmail Krebs tied to a Microsoft document in Thomson's name returned 24 results. Persona addresses were traced alternatively through what they touched, as the burner email post shows.

2. A coined grip is a fingerprint; a dictionary term is camouflage

volhvb returned 11 exact matches and no near misses. joeleoli returned 33 results, all exact matches. deadcatx3 returned 21 exact-match results, including the HackerOne overview Krebs reported. Common strings behave differently: Express, the BreachForums name Krebs ties to the group, returned 316 exact-match results and the TrickBot pseudonym mango 439. A hit on a average term is a starting point, never an answer.

3. An email anchor strikes a grip match

nerowolfe, the name of a fictional detective, returned 113 exact matches. Only one of them, the GitHub document reached through [email protected], is anchored to the community record, and it carries the NeroWolfe persona Krebs tied to Khoroshev. The identical form holds for Grubbs, whose published Gmail resolves to a GitHub document displaying "Colton Grubbs", and for the OFAC location on Maksim Rudenskiy's entry, which resolves to a GitHub document displaying "Max Rudensky".

4. Dates kind owners from squatters

A innovation date is the one overview site the owner cannot type. On the lockbitsupp alias, a Steam document held by an unrelated gamer dates from 2004, years before LockBit existed (Steam lets users alter a overview URL, so the grip itself may be newer). A Codeforces document appeared five days following the indictment was unsealed and TikTok and Twitch accounts followed in December 2025, all imaginable squatters or impersonators. In the Joeleoli case, a GitLab overview displaying "Joel Evans" dates from September 2017, before the conspiracy he admitted, during a MyAnimeList document on the grip was created approximately 21 months following the apprehension and carries the identical squatter hedge. On the volhvb handle, none of the dated accounts was created following the designation.

5. The document anchors, and the hunt illustrates

The HackerOne overview at deadcatx3 displays "ruben thomson", exactly as Krebs reported. The Medium overview on volhvb displays the Cyrillic orthography of the name on the sanctions entry. Both average item lone since a community document had already tied the grip to the name. Good sources say so. Of his LockBit reconstruction, Krebs wrote: "Does the complete timeline demonstrate that NeroWolfe/Khoroshev is LockBitSupp? No." On a grip that appears nowhere in the record, a matching display name is a lead, not a conclusion.

6. Know which document prints identifiers

The Khoroshev indictment prints no email location at all, and the IntelBroker complaint refers to "West Email Account-1". The OFAC admission for Khoroshev prints two addresses. In the Scattered Spider cases, UK and European authorities published names, ages, towns and sentences but no alias, mailbox or handle; the US filings and journalists supplied the strings to search. Our SDN email guide shows how to discover them on the list.

The ethics rules this sequence follows

• Public document only. Subjects are group publically charged, convicted or sanctioned. Every identifier searched was archetypal printed by a court, Treasury or named reporting, and all assertion links to that source.
• Presumption of innocence. Charged method alleged. Persona ownership is attributed to whoever established it, specified as "the NeroWolfe persona Krebs tied to him".
• No minors and no victims. Neither is identified or described.
• No unpublished handles. When a lookup surfaces a grip or display name the document never printed, the article describes it generically, for example as a overview whose display name matches the sanctioned name. Unrelated group who portion a grip are never named.
• A zero outcome is not proof. A lookup that finds no registrations says what that lookup found, not that no document exists. A mailbox is called a persona or burner location lone whenever the document describes it that way.
• Later accounts are hedged. Anything created following an arrest, unsealing or heading is treated as a imaginable squatter or impersonator.
• Some published particulars remain out. Phone numbers, passwords, passport and tax numbers, and relatives' particulars are remaining out equal whenever a origin prints them.

FAQ

What is an OSINT case study?

A worked example of open origin inquiry alongside its inputs shown: the identifier, the document that published it, the hunt run, and what came back. Here, all input is a public-record email or alias, so anyone can inspect the origin and reiterate the search.

Where do the identifiers in these case studies arrive from?

From indictments, complaints, affidavits, sentencing memos, OFAC sanctions entries and named reporting specified as KrebsOnSecurity and BleepingComputer. The journalists and firms rearward that work, including Intel 471 and OpenSanctions, deserve most of the credit.

Does a matching username or display name demonstrate who owns an account?

No. A equivalent shows a cord is registered, and display names are self-typed. The attribution guide grades all benevolent of evidence, and the username verification checklist gives you a worksheet for the comparison.

Can I reiterate these investigations myself?

Yes. Take an identifier from a chief source, run the email lookup first, hunt any grip it returns, kind the results by innovation date and log results that refuse the document next to those that fit it.

Run your own case study

The method plant on any lead, or on your own footprint. Run a liberated hunt on OSINTsearch for an email location or username. Results display the phase and overview particulars specified as display names and associate dates anywhere available, and paid plans export to CSV, JSON or PDF.

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The emblem of Jamaica looks akin this:

Inspired by this Reddit post: if the emblem is the letter X, what does the remainder of the alphabet appearance like? Read the blog article concerning making this font.

This content box contains average content that you can select, copy, and search. The colors and shapes are built immediately into the font!

The Connected Variant joins alphabet together, using contextual font features to equivalent backdrop colors between alphabet and connecting certain glyphs. Learn additional concerning how this font works.

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Kelas IP address adalah pembagian alamat IPv4 menjadi lima kelompok, yaitu kelas A, B, C, D, dan E, berdasarkan beberapa bit pertamanya. Kelas A sampai C dipakai untuk alamat host biasa, kelas D untuk multicast, dan kelas E dicadangkan. Kelas sebuah alamat bisa kalian kenali dari bilangan di oktet pertamanya.

Di bawah ini ada tabel kelas IP address lengkap, rumus menghitung jumlah jaringan dan host, alamat khusus yang perlu diingat, sampai karena mekanisme kelas ini sudah tidak dipakai lagi di internet.

IPv4 dan pembagian kelas (classful addressing)

Alamat IPv4 panjangnya 32 bit, ditulis sebagai empat oktet berisi bilangan 0 sampai 255 yang dipisah titik, misalnya 192.168.1.10. Kalau kalian belum dekat dengan konsep alamat IP, baca dahulu pengertian IP address sebelum lanjut.

Setiap alamat punya dua bagian: bagiankecil jaringan (network) dan bagiankecil host. RFC 791, rincian IPv4 yang terbit September 1981, menentukan batas kedua bagiankecil itu dari bit paling depan. Kalau bit pertamanya 0, alamat itu kelas A. Kalau dua bit pertamanya 10, kelas B. Kalau tiga bit pertamanya 110, kelas C. Pembagian inilah yang disebut kelas IP address maupun classful addressing.

Kelas D dan E menyusul lewat RFC 1112. Alamat yang diawali bit 1110 menjadi kelas D untuk multicast, sedangkan yang diawali 1111 dicadangkan untuk keperluan di masa depan.

Tabel kelas IP address A sampai E

Default subnet mask tiap kelas IP address menginformasikan berapa bit yang menjadi bagiankecil jaringan. Kelas A memakai 8 bit pertama, kelas B 16 bit, dan kelas C 24 bit. RFC 4632 mengatakan mask ini sebagai mask yang tersirat dari kelasnya, misalnya jaringan kelas B 172.16.0.0 punya mask 255.255.0.0 maupun ditulis /16. Cara membaca dan menghitung mask dibahas di artikel subnet mask.

Rumus jumlah jaringan dan host

Jumlah jaringan di tiap kelas IP address dihitung dari bit jaringan yang tersisa setelah bit mula kelas dipakai. Jumlah host dihitung dari bit host, kemudian dikurangi dua.

jumlah jaringan = 2^(bit jaringan - bit mula kelas) host per jaringan = 2^(bit host) - 2

• Kelas A: bagiankecil jaringan 8 bit, 1 bit dipakai penanda kelas, sisa 7 bit. Jumlah jaringan 2^7 = 128. Bagian host 24 bit, jadi 2^24 − 2 = 16.777.216 − 2 = 16.777.214 host.
• Kelas B: bagiankecil jaringan 16 bit, 2 bit penanda kelas, sisa 14 bit. Jumlah jaringan 2^14 = 16.384. Bagian host 16 bit, jadi 2^16 − 2 = 65.536 − 2 = 65.534 host.
• Kelas C: bagiankecil jaringan 24 bit, 3 bit penanda kelas, sisa 21 bit. Jumlah jaringan 2^21 = 2.097.152. Bagian host 8 bit, jadi 2^8 − 2 = 256 − 2 = 254 host.

Angka dua yang dikurangkan adalah dua alamat yang tidak bisa dipakai host. Alamat dengan semua bit host berkualitas 0 menjadi alamat jaringan itu sendiri, dan alamat dengan semua bit host berkualitas 1 menjadi alamat broadcast jaringan tersebut.

Pada kelas A, dari 128 jaringan ada dua yang punya fungsi khusus, yaitu blok 0.0.0.0/8 dan 127.0.0.0/8. Karena itu jaringan kelas A yang bisa dipakai untuk host biasa tinggal 126.

Kelas D untuk multicast, kelas E untuk cadangan

Dua kelas IP address terakhir tidak dipakai untuk alamat host biasa. Kelas D mencakup 224.0.0.0 sampai 239.255.255.255. RFC 1112 memakai rentang ini untuk host group: satu alamat mewakili sekelompok host, sehingga satu paket yang dikirim ke alamat itu diterima semua personel grup. Contohnya 224.0.0.1, grup permanen berisi semua host IP di jaringan yang terhubung langsung. Karena alamatnya menunjuk grup, kelas D tidak dibagi menjadi bagiankecil jaringan dan host.

Kelas E mencakup 240.0.0.0 sampai 255.255.255.255. RFC 1112 mencadangkannya untuk mode pengalamatan di masa depan, dan registri IANA sampai kini mencatat blok 240/8 sampai 255/8 sebagai “Future use” dengan keterangan dahulu disebut kelas E. Alamat di rentang ini tidak diberikan ke host.

Alamat khusus di dalam kelas IP address

Beberapa blok di kelas A sampai E punya fungsi khusus dan tercatat di registri special-purpose (RFC 6890). Yang paling sering kalian temui:

• 0.0.0.0/8: berarti “host ini di jaringan ini”. IANA mencatatnya untuk identifikasi diri, bukan untuk alamat host.
• 127.0.0.0/8: loopback. Paket yang dikirim ke alamat ini, misalnya 127.0.0.1, tidak keluar dari alat dan balik ke alat itu sendiri.
• 169.254.0.0/16: link-local (RFC 3927). Perangkat bisa memberi dirinya alamat dari blok ini saat tidak ada sumber alamat lain, misalnya ketika DHCP client gagal mendapat alamat. Router tidak boleh meneruskan paket berawalan alamat ini.
• 255.255.255.255: limited broadcast, alamat tujuan untuk mengirim ke semua host di jaringan lokal.
• Alamat broadcast tiap jaringan: semua bit host berkualitas 1, misalnya 192.168.1.255 untuk jaringan 192.168.1.0/24.

Alamat IP privat per kelas (RFC 1918)

RFC 1918 menyisihkan tiga blok untuk jaringan privat, satu di tiap kelas IP address A, B, dan C. Siapa saja boleh memakainya di jaringan internal tanpa koordinasi dengan IANA, tetapi alamat ini tidak punya arti di internet mendunia dan rutenya tidak boleh diumumkan ke luar.

Itu sebabnya alamat di jaringan rumah maupun institusi biasanya berawalan 192.168 maupun 10. Perhatikan bahwa blok kelas B privat cuma sampai 172.31. Alamat 172.32.0.1 statis kelas B, tetapi bukan alamat privat.

Cara menentukan kelas IP address dari sebuah alamat

Untuk menentukan kelas IP address, kalian cukup melihat oktet pertama, kemudian mencocokkannya dengan tabel di atas.

1. Ambil bilangan paling kiri dari alamat, misalnya 172 dari 172.20.5.9.
2. Cocokkan dengan rentang oktet pertama: 0 sampai 127 kelas A, 128 sampai 191 kelas B, 192 sampai 223 kelas C, 224 sampai 239 kelas D, 240 sampai 255 kelas E.
3. Kalau ragu, ubah oktet itu ke biner dan lihat bit awalnya. 172 dalam biner adalah 10101100, diawali 10, jadi kelas B.
4. Cek apakah alamat itu masuk blok khusus maupun privat. 172.20.5.9 eksis di 172.16.0.0/12, jadi alamat privat kelas B.

Contoh penentuan kelas IP address untuk alamat lain:

Classful sudah digantikan CIDR

Pembagian kelas IP address punya kelemahan besar: ukurannya kaku. Organisasi yang butuh 500 alamat terlalu besar untuk kelas C (254 host), sehingga mendapat kelas B dengan 65.534 host. RFC 4632 mencatat masalah yang muncul di mula 1990-an karena pola ini: ruang alamat kelas B hampir habis, tabel routing di router internet membengkak, dan ruang alamat IPv4 32 bit terancam habis.

Solusinya adalah Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), pertama lewat RFC 1519 kemudian diperbarui RFC 4632 pada Agustus 2006. CIDR menghapus mekanisme penugasan kelas A, B, dan C. Panjang bagiankecil jaringan ditulis langsung sebagai prefix dengan bilangan 0 sampai 32 setelah garis miring, misalnya 192.168.99.0/24, sehingga blok alamat bisa dibagi sesuai kebutuhan. Keterbatasan ruang alamat ini juga yang mendorong lahirnya IPv6.

RFC 4632 terlebihlagi mengingatkan bahwa alat yang statis memakai kesepakatan kelas A, B, dan C tidak bisa diharapkan bekerja benar di internet. Jadi kelas IP address kini lebih berguna sebagai bahan belajar: memahami bit awal, mask bawaan, dan asal-usul blok privat. Cara membagi jaringan dengan prefix tanpa kelas akan dibahas di artikel subnetting yang menyusul.

Spesifikasi CIDR komplit ada di RFC 4632 di situs RFC Editor.

The Guarini School of Graduate and Advanced Studies has suspended admissions to the next cohort in its math Ph.D. program, which would matriculate in the 2027-2028 scholarly year. Guarini dean Carrie Colla ’01 and College spokesman Jana Barnello did not define whenever or whether the program would resume admissions. 

Colla wrote in a Nov. 10 email declaration to The Dartmouth that Guarini “regularly considers how to finest allocate in alumnus education.”

“As part of those regular reviews, we are pausing admissions to the math Ph.D. program for the 2027-2028 sequence during the School of Arts and Sciences conducts a division review,” she wrote.

The decision to suspend the program “was made in near alliance alongside leaders in the School of Arts and Sciences and we appearance onward to operating collaboratively alongside the division on this review,” Colla added.

She wrote in a Nov. 10 email to current alumnus students that there “will be opportunities for students to act in the review” and that she would encounter alongside math alumnus students and division department on Nov. 17. Graduate students can additionally attain out to math division place Dimitrios Giannakis and math prof Vladimir Chernov to portion questions and concerns, she wrote. 

“While I cognize it is disappointing news that your cohort volition not be expanding next year, I am assured that this method volition authorize us to fortify the cognition of the two our Ph.D. students and the undergraduate students in the department,” Colla wrote.

During a Q&A at the Nov. 9 broad department meeting, which The Dartmouth attended but was not permitted to record, department raised concerns concerning the suspension. Math prof Peter Winkler, who opposed the suspension, stated at the gathering the decision was communicated to math division department on Nov. 6. Winkler declined to provision additional comment following the meeting. 

The Ph.D. program’s intermission follows a national trend of decreasing Ph.D. program seats. Data collected from 55 undisclosed investigation institutions demonstrated that Ph.D. acceptances dropped 15% in 2026 from the former year, equal although family applications increased.

In a Nov. 10 email to current alumnus students, which was obtained and reviewed by The Dartmouth, Giannakis wrote that department members were “continuing to engage” alongside College administrators to “find a way forward” that would “eventually resume” the Ph.D. program.

Giannakis was unable to comment by period of publication.

The Guarini admissions agency communicated the decision to applicants on Nov. 10, according to an email obtained by The Dartmouth. Any materials or advice alphabet that have already been submitted “will not be reviewed,” the Guarini admissions agency wrote. Applications for the program, which typically accepts seven to nine students per year, would have been due on Dec. 15, 2026, according to the math division website.

“Stipends, coverage and the five-year backing justify all remain in location for students making satisfactory scholarly progress,” Colla wrote. “Advising relationships, qualifying exams, flat requirements and instruction and investigation appointments volition continue as planned.”

Second-year math Ph.D. applicant Alex Moon GR stated they accept suspending applications for the upcoming sequence sends “a communication of instability” to forthcoming applicants.

“Part of the agreement of alumnus academy is that you desire there to be minimal factors exterior of your authority that volition forestall you from getting this Ph.D.,” Moon said. “If this is item they do once, it’s item they can do later.”

In an discussion alongside The Dartmouth, second-year math Ph.D. applicant Aidan Hennessey GR stated “losing out on a cohort of students” would negatively power the discussions among the “already fairly small” Ph.D. program.

“Having group in neighboring areas of math to you — that you can conversation concerning math and study from, instruct and conversation through ideas alongside — all of this is extremely helpful,” Hennessey said. “Having additional students about is nice for community.”

Lehmann Duke added that the suspension could put undergraduates intending to enroll in graduate-level math courses “at a genuine deficit.” 

Ben Singer ’27 — who stated they have taken graduate-level math courses since their freshman twelvemonth — added that there are “a few center alumnus courses” that are “really crucial for undergraduates current who desire to enter alumnus school.” A decrease in Ph.D. students raises questions concerning whether those classes volition be offered, whether undergraduates volition be capable to obtain them and how small way offerings volition power group who desire to go to alumnus school, Singer said. 

The College “reserves the correct to create changes in the offering” or cancel a way alongside small than five enrolled students, according to the Arts and Sciences Registrar’s Office website.

“We study how to use to grad school, and what it means,” Hooja said. “It’s an crucial association I’ve really benefitted a lot from.”

Third-year Ph.D. applicant Michaela Polley GR stated she was concerned concerning the pause’s effects on “research culture” among Dartmouth graduates and undergraduates alike.

“The idea of being a investigation university and a broad arts university doesn’t activity if you don’t have alumnus students,” she said.

Beilock announced at the gathering that the College is “working to decrease Dartmouth’s spending by $50 million,” in command to addition department and personnel salaries “especially if and whenever cost increase continues to rise,” according to a copy of her address published on the Office of the President’s website.

In a Nov. 11 email declaration to The Dartmouth, Barnello wrote that the $50 myriad “reflects adjustments already made” to the budget, and that “roughly half” is “already in place” for financial twelvemonth 2027.

Beilock additionally announced at the gathering that the College is “preparing” to change North Park apartments, which are currently listed on the Office of Residential Life website as undergraduate housing, to alumnus pupil housing. The North Park apartments have exclusively housed undergraduates since the 2022-2023 scholarly year, according to the Dartmouth Graduate Student Council website.

Correction appended (Nov. 12, 9:30 a.m.): A former type of this part referred to Alex Moon as he. They use they/them pronouns.

More than 1,500 misleading job postings — offering distant work, no cognition needed — have been taken downward from LinkedIn and Monster following a CBC ocular inquiry revealed the listings funnelled unsuspecting applicants to a multi-level promotion (MLM) business that asked for money.

CBC connected a network of travel-related pages posting doubtful jobs — positions akin "Work From Home Travel Planner and Virtual Customer Support Representative" — to a U.S.-based MLM called Evolution Travel. Some of the roles promised to pay up to $75,000 US per year.

In reality, there was no job and no salary.

Applicants were quickly directed to associate virtual data sessions, anywhere they were asked to pay hundreds of dollars up front, followed by a monthly subscription fee. The program promised to instruct members how to create prosperity from booking journey as an autonomous delegate and recruiting others into the program, taking a cut of their commissions.

WATCH | Investigating who's rearward hundreds of counterfeit job postings:

The companies went by names akin Wanderwell Collective, Professional Travel Hub, Remote-Careers, Sky Land & Ocean Travel and Sunkissed Getaways.

The job postings made no citation of Evolution Travel or sign-up fees.

Many of the jobs did not necessitate cognition and promised to pay up to $75,000 US. (Illustration: Matthew Hoddy/CBC; LinkedIn)

"This is disgusting," stated Jay Jones, a Chicago-based job listing investigator who CBC shared its findings with. "They capture you alongside the lure of the counterfeit job. The prosperity is great, [successful applicants] get to remain at home. You have to pay to get activity — that's not how activity works."

Misleading job postings — including ones that necessitate fee or guide to MLMs — are strictly prohibited on platforms akin LinkedIn and another job sites.

Jay Jones investigates misleading and counterfeit jobs online. (CBC)

"It feels in so many ways that we're living in a funhouse mirror," stated Vass Bednar, managing director of the Canadian Shield Institute, a community guideline think-tank that focuses on financial resilience and digital sovereignty.

These postings hazard "eroding confidence — confidence in the oneself and confidence that there is, frankly, meaningful activity out there for group that is value pursuing."

Jobs were 'misleading': LinkedIn

MLMs are not forbidden in Canada or the U.S. However, in the U.S., companies and individuals could visage fines if they are established to breach the U.S. Federal Trade Commission Act, which prohibits "unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce."

"I would regard [these job posts] misleading… and would invitation implementation by either the FTC, the province governments or another national implementation agencies," stated William Kovacic, erstwhile FTC chairman and commissioner, alongside whom CBC additionally shared its findings.

One autonomous delegate rearward multiple journey businesses connected to misleading jobs ads CBC identified — Wanderwell Collective, Destination Knot, Aisle and Abroad, and Professional Travel Hub — was Diedre Norton. In one video posted to YouTube, Norton stated she had a network of 300 recruits for Evolution Travel.

Even although Evolution Travel’s founder, David McCovy, praised her in online videos as being a top performer, Norton denied being affiliated alongside the program before hanging up on CBC News.

Screenshot of an online video showing Evolution originator David McCovy during a conference. (EvolutionTravelCafe/YouTube)

McCovy did not react to CBC’s requests for comment.

A delegate from Evolution Travel who lone identified themselves by their title, chief functioning officer, told CBC they have consistently told their autonomous agents not to article job ads on any platforms.

Late final month, LinkedIn took downward near to 900 ads connected to Evolution Travel, saying it had removed them since they were "misleading and violated" business policy, adding "the companies rearward them volition no longer be capable to article jobs" on the platform.

Monster took downward 600 listings, saying it has "clear policies prohibiting misleading job postings and multi-level promotion opportunities, and we obtain act to eliminate listings that do not encounter our standards."

Hundreds of job postings posted to LinkedIn and Monster really brought applicants into the recruiting procedure for a multi-level promotion company, a CBC News ocular inquiry has found. (Illustration: Matthew Hoddy/CBC, LinkedIn, Monster)

Detecting counterfeit jobs

Evolution Travel does not run in Canada, but CBC journalists motionless came throughout the job posting in their feeds. They were additionally recommended in emails from LinkedIn.

The ads contained contiguous red flags. The journey companies named in the ads had minimal to no existence online, and there were near to 1,500 postings, frequently alongside nearly identical job descriptions.

Many of the jobs did not necessitate cognition and were remote. CBC established additional than 1,500 misleading or counterfeit jobs. (LinkedIn)

The jobs, in many cases, required no education, no previous cognition and frequently did not necessitate a resumé.

CBC applied for eight jobs on LinkedIn and Monster, attaching a blank document as a resumé in cases that required it. Upon applying, the squad was sent automated emails to associate a virtual data meeting by individuals connected to Evolution Travel. 

CBC journalists were sent automated emails and asked to associate a virtual data meeting by individuals connected to Evolution Travel upon applying for the jobs. (CBC)

Evolution Travel and its partner Archer Travel Services depict themselves as an global "home-based journey business" that trains its members to publish journey and acquire a commission.

But it's not fair concerning booking travel. Archer Travel’s website describes Evolution Travel as its "recruiting partner" and describes it as a "network marketing" business — another term for multi-level marketing, according to the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission.

A compensation scheme for members on Evolution Travel’s website shows a percent of commissions and monthly bonuses are paid to the most productive recruiters, alongside affiliation tiers up to "8 Star Platinum" for recruiting 100,000 people.

Documents display compensation plans for Evolution Travel. (Evolution Travel)

None of this was mentioned in the data sessions CBC attended, which covered journey booking exclusively. When a CBC newsman posing as a job applicant asked concerning getting commissions from their own recruits, the meeting presenter stated it was not covered in the data sessions and that the individual who welcomed them into the program would location it.

Session hosts additionally didn’t disclose there is a hidden $50 annual fee in the autonomous contractor agreement, seen by CBC, whenever signing up.

A screenshot from an Evolution virtual meeting shows the packages attendees can pay to enrol in the program. (Evolution Travel)

Former FTC chairman and commissioner Kovacic stated if he were motionless at the agency, he would be looking into the company.

"[Fees are] not presented in the first interaction," he said. "It's shrouded in a way that's extremely crucial and would mislead users."

27,000 autonomous contractors

Job seekers have been complaining concerning Evolution Travel, its members and agents akin Deidre Norton online and to the Better Business Bureau for years.

In 2021, Evolution Travel was among 1,000 companies put on notice by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission that they could visage fines if they or their representatives made "misleading, or deceptive representations" concerning a "money-making opportunity." 

Kovacic stated a resolute that "defied" FTC notices and continued to persist in these practices would be a "worthy mark for an investigation."

CBC News established many complaints online concerning companies connected to the job postings. (Illustration: Matthew Hoddy/CBC, Reddit, Better Business Bureau)

Ron Archer, the CEO of Archer Travel Services, stated that the business does "not condone forbidden job postings and addresses them whenever we are made aware."

Yet in videos online, journey agents connected to Evolution Travel talked openly concerning using LinkedIn job postings to enlist group into the business.

Archer stated they cannot "tell group how they train for their business" since they have "27,000 autonomous contractors about the world."

"LinkedIn is a big one," stated one associate in a June 2026 training video posted to YouTube. "We have fairly a few distinct trainings on how to article on LinkedIn."

Jay Jones, who has gotten tens of thousands of jobs taken downward from platforms himself, stated companies akin LinkedIn and Monster create income through this traffic.

"There's no genuine vetting of what companies get to be created, what jobs get to be listed," stated Jones. "People coming [to LinkedIn] believing that there are genuine opportunities are greeted alongside this MLM nonsense."

For any tips connected to this investigation, communication eric.szeto@cbc.ca or the ocular inquiry team’s inbox: vi@cbc.ca

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Artikel ini menjawab apa itu cPanel lewat peta menunya. Tiap bagiankecil dijelaskan fungsinya, kemudian diarahkan ke panduan Jetorbit yang memuat metode lengkapnya. Nama bagiankecil dan menu mengikuti dokumentasi resmi cPanel.

Apa itu cPanel dan siapa yang mengatur isinya

Dokumentasi resmi mengatakan antarmuka cPanel sebagai halaman utama bagi pelanggan akun cPanel, tempat membikin dan mengelola domain, email, konten situs, dan database. Kalian membukanya lewat browser dan masuk dengan username dan password cPanel. Cara mendapatkan dan memakai kredensial itu ada di panduan login ke cPanel.

Satu hal sering bikin bingung: menu di akun kalian bisa berbeda dari tangkapan layar di artikel maupun dokumentasi. Penyedia hosting bisa menghidupkan maupun mematikan sebuah fitur lewat Feature Manager di WHM, dan profil server juga bisa menonaktifkan sebagian fitur. Kalau menu yang kalian cari tidak ada, tanyakan ke supplier hosting. Kalau pertanyaan kalian bukan cuma apa itu cPanel tetapi juga apa bedanya dengan WHM, pembagian perannya dibahas di artikel apa itu WHM dan cPanel.

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Bagian-bagian di bawah ini menguraikan apa itu cPanel menu demi menu, mengikuti pengelompokan di dokumentasi cPanel. Fitur apa saja yang tampil di tiap bagiankecil tergantung akun dan supplier hosting kalian.

Files: file, FTP, dan backup

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Databases: database, user, dan hak akses

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Domains: domain dan pengalihan

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Software: varian PHP dan php.ini

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We established sqrt(2.0) in the standard's float_pkg returns one component in the final location too low in twice precision by default. This is the IEEE 1076-2008 and 1076-2019 VHDL floating-point package; IEEE publishes the file, GHDL and NVC container it unchanged.

The base uses a fixed figure of Newton steps and no sticky bit. But taking it one bit at a period from the definition is exact, alongside a subtraction per bit, the identical item as quadrate base by hand on paper.

Our inspect treats operands as exact fractions, does all procedure exactly and rounds formerly before comparing. mac(-6, -1, -5), or (-6)(-1)+(-5), returns -15 alternatively of 1. Converting 2^-512 twice to sole returns 1.0; reciprocal of 2^127 in sole returns infinity. For all operands and pairs in a 7-bit format (3 exponent bits, 3 fraction bits), affirmative all mac triples, we ran 8,692,326 calls, and 1,271,619 weren't correctly rounded.

The exact reference, testbench, causes alongside origin row numbers and place are in the folder. All 32,470,838 calls from four test sets continue alongside patch; GHDL and NVC create identical outcome records on average sets. fixed_pkg division gets 41,026 of 751,418 incorrect and has its place there. Reported to IEEE P1076 operating collection (VHDL-Issues 388), ghdl 3486, nvc 1758.

To see it yourself, alongside GHDL and nothing else:

ghdl -a --std=08 plain.vhd ghdl --elab-run --std=08 plain 

The remainder of this leaf is the record: all incorrect call, the counts, the causes by line, the patch.

ieee.float_pkg is the floating-point bundle of the VHDL standard, IEEE Std 1076-2008 and 1076-2019. The origin is the IEEE's own: ieee/float_generic_pkg-body.vhdl on the publish branch of opensource.ieee.org/vasg/Packages, 5,712 lines, $Revision: 1220 $. The operating group's create branch at gitlab.com/IEEE-P1076/Packages has the identical bytes, and GHDL and NVC container them unchanged. The runs current are in GHDL 7.0.0-dev and NVC 1.23.1, and anywhere the two ran the identical vectors they wrote the identical outcome file.

The bundle is set beside exact arithmetic. An operand is a sign and a fraction of two integers, the procedure is done on the fractions, and the outcome is rounded formerly into the format in the rounding manner the call names. exact.py is that reference.

With the package's own settings: round_nearest, 3 defender bits, denormal numbers on.

call returns exactly rounded sqrt (2.0) in float64 3FF6A09E667F3BCC 3FF6A09E667F3BCD sqrt (14.0) 406F7750 406F7751 sqrt (2.0**-149) 4.2e-22 3.7e-23 mac (-6.0, -1.0, -5.0) -15.0 1.0 mac (-5.0, 1.0, 4.0) 15.0 -1.0 mac (1.0, 1.0, -infinity) +infinity -infinity mac (1 + 2.0**-23, 1 - 2.0**-23, -1.0) -2.0**-26 -2.0**-46 resize (2.0**-512 in float64, 8, 23) 1.0 0.0 resize (2.0**600 in float64, 8, 23) 2.0**88 +infinity resize (2.0**-1074 in float64, 8, 23) +infinity 0.0 resize (2.0**-650 in float64, 8, 23) stops the simulator 0.0 reciprocal (2.0**127) +infinity 2.0**-127 divide (2.0**-149, 2.0) 2.0**-149 0.0 dividebyp2 (3 * 2.0**-149, 2.0) 2.0**-149 2.0**-148 scalb (1.0, 300) 0.0 +infinity scalb (+infinity, -10) 2.0**118 +infinity to_signed (0.50000006, 32) 0 1 to_unsigned (199.78125, 8) 199 200 

And anywhere the call names a rounding style:

divide (6.0, 3.0, round_inf) 2.0000002 2.0 reciprocal (2.0, round_inf) 0.50000006 0.5 add (largest, largest, round_zero) +infinity largest multiply (2.0**-100, 2.0**-100, round_inf) 0.0 2.0**-149 add (1.0, -1.0, round_neginf) +0.0 -0.0 to_signed (2.25, 8, round_inf) 2 3 to_float (100000, 5, 10, round_zero) +infinity 65504.0, the largest 

plain.vhd makes these calls and prints WRONG beside all outcome that is not the exactly rounded one: 24 lines, and the 25th call stops the simulator alongside an indicator out of limits at row 358 of the bundle body. It needs GHDL and nothing else:

ghdl -a --std=08 plain.vhd ghdl --elab-run --std=08 plain 

The plain operands are not rare ones. Of the integers 1 to 4,096, sqrt returns a float32 one component off for 256 and a float64 one component off for 264. Of the 4,913 triples made from -6 to 6, 0.25, 0.5, 1.5 and 10, mac returns the incorrect float32 for 290. resize from float64 to float32 returns +infinity for all power of two from 2^-1074 to 2^-1024, stops the simulator from 2^-662 to 2^-639, returns 2^(e+512) from 2^-638 to 2^-512 and 2^(e-512) from 2^513 to 2^639.

10,000 calls per operation, format and rounding style, on operands aimed at the places arithmetic breaks: denormal operands and results, the two ends of the exponent range, fractions that circular up into the next binade, exact ties, signed zeros, infinities. A division is the figure of results that are not the exactly rounded one, of the calls compared. A conversion whose outcome does not fit the entire figure is not compared.

float32 round_nearest round_zero round_neginf round_inf add 0 of 10,000 304 of 10,000 312 of 10,000 159 of 10,000 subtract 0 of 10,000 314 of 10,000 312 of 10,000 143 of 10,000 multiply 0 of 10,000 1,102 of 10,000 781 of 10,000 775 of 10,000 divide 27 of 10,000 670 of 10,000 2,324 of 10,000 2,395 of 10,000 sqrt 735 of 10,000 581 of 10,000 542 of 10,000 774 of 10,000 mac 2,671 of 10,000 3,697 of 10,000 3,213 of 10,000 3,302 of 10,000 reciprocal 384 of 10,000 586 of 10,000 1,093 of 10,000 2,613 of 10,000 resize to a narrower format 422 of 20,000 2,728 of 20,000 2,516 of 20,000 2,466 of 20,000 272 additional halt the simulator resize to a wider format 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 to_float (signed, 32 and 64 bits) 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 to_signed (8, 32, 64 bits) 613 of 28,637 0 of 28,626 5,934 of 28,608 5,898 of 28,623 to_unsigned (8, 32, 64 bits) 280 of 16,506 0 of 17,133 0 of 14,493 5,964 of 17,145 to_integer 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 1,921 of 10,000 1,973 of 10,000 to_float (integer) 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 dividebyp2 1,542 of 10,000 1,904 of 10,000 2,313 of 10,000 2,262 of 10,000 scalb 2,653 of 10,000 3,088 of 10,000 3,381 of 10,000 3,401 of 10,000 

float64 round_nearest round_zero round_neginf round_inf add 0 of 10,000 260 of 10,000 311 of 10,000 138 of 10,000 subtract 0 of 10,000 283 of 10,000 317 of 10,000 147 of 10,000 multiply 0 of 10,000 1,163 of 10,000 852 of 10,000 866 of 10,000 divide 18 of 10,000 698 of 10,000 2,495 of 10,000 2,406 of 10,000 sqrt 1,278 of 10,000 619 of 10,000 659 of 10,000 799 of 10,000 mac 2,673 of 10,000 3,697 of 10,000 3,285 of 10,000 3,290 of 10,000 reciprocal 350 of 10,000 477 of 10,000 1,087 of 10,000 2,623 of 10,000 resize to a narrower format 801 of 30,000 4,116 of 30,000 3,980 of 30,000 4,014 of 30,000 445 additional halt the simulator resize to a wider format 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 to_float (signed, 32 and 64 bits) 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 0 of 20,000 to_signed (8, 32, 64 bits) 618 of 28,219 0 of 28,231 6,161 of 28,340 5,952 of 28,262 to_unsigned (8, 32, 64 bits) 321 of 16,330 0 of 16,839 0 of 14,237 6,155 of 16,776 to_integer 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 2,125 of 10,000 2,183 of 10,000 to_float (integer) 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 0 of 10,000 dividebyp2 1,543 of 10,000 1,902 of 10,000 2,321 of 10,000 2,391 of 10,000 scalb 2,218 of 10,000 2,540 of 10,000 2,982 of 10,000 2,967 of 10,000 

In float32 that is 81,068 incorrect and 272 stops in 859,771 calls, and in float64 86,081 incorrect and 445 stops in 857,234. The identical calls in float16 provision 113,980 incorrect in 866,782, and in float128 90,744 incorrect and 585 stops in 855,777.

Where a format is small enough, all operand there is:

format calls compared wrong 7 bits, 3 of exponent and 3 of fraction all operand, all pair, all triple of mac 8,692,326 1,271,619 10 bits, 4 of exponent and 5 of fraction all operand and all brace 17,340,682 883,716 float16 all operand of the one-operand functions 2,998,266 266,342 

mac in round_nearest is incorrect for 243,520 of the 2,097,152 triples of the 7-bit format.

Line numbers are those of the IEEE file.

normalize, row 422. Every outcome goes through exp := resize (expon, exp'length) + shiftr. The exponent comes in at the width of the caller's format and is cut to two bits additional than the target's. From float64 to float32 that is ten bits, so the exponent is taken modulo 1,024: 2^-512 comes out as 1.0 and 2^600 as 2^88. Where the cut exponent lands among the denormal numbers, the change figure that follows indexes exterior the fraction and the simulator stops. In the identical function a outcome too ample for the format is infinity in all rounding manner and a outcome too small is zero in all rounding style. Rounding toward zero gives the largest number, and rounding distant from zero gives the smallest.

divide, row 1243, and reciprocal, row 1099. The sticky bit handed to the rounding is the changeless '1'. An exact quotient is rounded as if item were remaining over: one component up in round_inf, and to the incorrect flank of an exact tie in round_nearest, which happens among denormal quotients.

reciprocal, lines 1053 to 1093. The exponent of the result, -e - 3, is kept in as many bits as e, and for the top binade it does not fit. In float32 all disagreement from 2^127 up returns infinity, and in float64 all disagreement from 2^1023 up. 1/-0 returns +infinity and 1/-infinity returns +0.

sqrt, row 1787. Newton's repeat from (1 + x)/2, fraction_width/4 + 1 steps in truncated fixed point, and the outcome goes to the rounding without a sticky bit. For a normal disagreement it ends on the base or one component beside it: in the vectors complete it is one component off for 607 of 9,156 normal float32 arguments and 1,146 of 9,236 normal float64 ones, and never further. For a denormal disagreement the commencement is too far distant for that many steps: 128 of 359 float32 denormals are wrong, 104 of them by additional than two units, and sqrt (2.0**-149) returns 11 times the root.

mac, lines 1438 to 1536. The merchandise is cut to the width of one operand before c is added (lines 1529 and 1536), so a sum that cancels returns what the cut left. Where the merchandise and c have the identical exponent and dissimilar signs and the merchandise is the larger, row 1514 subtracts the larger from the smaller: (-6)(-1) + (-5) returns -15. An infinite c takes the sign of the product, and infinity minus infinity returns infinity (line 1438).

add, row 839. An exact zero from operands of dissimilar signs is +0 in all style. The paragraph the comment cites, IEEE 854 6.3, makes it -0 whenever rounding toward minus infinity.

to_signed, to_unsigned, lines 301 to 345, and to_integer, row 3193. Three bits below the entire figure are kept and the remainder are dropped without a sticky bit, so 0.50000006 is taken for one fractional and goes to the equal neighbour, 0. For a figure that fills all bit of a to_unsigned outcome the three bits are zeros: 199.78125 into 8 bits returns 199. round_inf and round_neginf appearance at the fractional bit only, so 2.25 rounded up is 2.

resize, row 2407. -0 to a narrower format returns +0, and the comment says dislike -0. To a wider format it stays -0.

to_float of an integer, lines 2676 and 2803. A figure too ample for the format returns infinity in all rounding style.

dividebyp2, row 1378, and Scalb, lines 4601 to 4610. Both hand the outcome to normalize alongside no defender bits, so a denormal outcome is cut off anywhere it have to be rounded. Scalb adds N in exponent_width + 1 bits, anywhere a ample N wraps, and it scales infinity akin a number. dividebyp2 takes a denormal power of two for a divisor that is not a power of two.

With denormalize false. A zero is damaged up alongside a higher exponent than a figure of the lowest binade, so add of a zero and specified a figure of the contrary sign subtracts the figure from zero and returns the wrapped difference. reciprocal treats those numbers as the denormals they are not.

float_generic_pkg-body.patch applies to the IEEE file. It changes the bundle build only, 33 hunks, and no declaration.

• normalize decides between zero, denormal, normal and infinity on the exponent at its complete width, and returns the largest or the smallest figure anywhere the rounding manner asks for it.
• divide and reciprocal obtain the sticky bit from the remainder of the division. reciprocal keeps its exponent two bits wider and gives zero and infinity the sign of the argument.
• sqrt takes the entire figure quadrate base of the significand one bit per step, alongside the remainder as the sticky bit.
• mac places the entire merchandise and c in one opening of 3 * fraction_width + 9 bits, adds or subtracts there and rounds once. It is a fused multiply-add.
• The conversions to integers keep three bits of the figure any the shift, collect the remainder in a sticky bit, and circular up in the directed styles on any bit below the integer.
• add returns the another operand whenever one is zero and gives an exact zero the sign the rounding manner calls for. resize keeps the sign of zero.
• to_float of an entire figure returns the largest figure anywhere the manner rounds toward zero.
• dividebyp2 and Scalb circular a denormal outcome alongside defender bits. Scalb returns infinity and zero as they are and takes any N.

On the identical vectors:

 the bundle as shipped patched four formats, 10,000 per cell, 3,439,564 calls 371,873 wrong, 1,302 halt 0 wrong, 0 stop the 7-bit format, 8,692,326 calls 1,271,619 incorrect 0 the 10-bit format, 17,340,682 calls 883,716 incorrect 0 float16, the one-operand functions, 2,998,266 calls 266,342 incorrect 0 plain.vhd, 25 calls 24 wrong, 1 halt 0 

GHDL and NVC wrote the identical outcome records alongside either package: 8,693,248 lines for the 7-bit format and 3,680,000 for the four formats, the 1,302 stops on the identical lines. The citation itself was set beside this machine's own arithmetic on the float32 and float64 vectors of add, subtract, multiply, distinct and sqrt in round_nearest: 99,135 operations, none different.

The bundle takes its defender bits and its denormal numbers as parameters. On 1,000 calls per division in float16, float32 and float64:

setting calls patched right, shipped incorrect neither correct shipped right, patched wrong 3 defender bits, the default 258,075 28,103 0 0 4 defender bits 258,075 27,758 0 0 2 defender bits 258,075 28,760 112 0 1 defender bit 258,075 30,212 2,194 0 denormalize false 255,606 27,745 0 0 

With two defender bits 112 results of add and subtract are not the rounded ones, and alongside one defender bit 2,194 of add, subtract and multiply: too few bits to circular all result, and the two packages come back the identical bits on those lines. With no defender bits nothing is rounded: the patched sqrt, mac and reciprocal afterward come back the exact outcome cut off toward zero on all line, anywhere the shipped ones do on 10,207 of 11,141, 3,902 of 9,750 and 10,749 of 11,102. With denormalize false the difference is alongside that setting's own numbers, anywhere an exponent site of zero is one additional binade of numbers alongside a foremost one.

ieee.fixed_pkg comes from the identical source, ieee/fixed_generic_pkg-body.vhdl, and NVC ships that document byte for byte. Every operand of six pairs of small indicator ranges, unsigned and signed, went through all arithmetic operation: 751,418 calls. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, rem, mod, the comparisons, add_carry, resize in the two rounding and the two overflow styles, to_integer, scalb, unary minus and abs are correct on all one. Division is not.

 ufixed sfixed / 1,073 of 19,984 952 of 19,984 divide, fixed_round, 1 defender bit 4,632 4,376 divide, fixed_round, 2 defender bits 2,433 2,370 divide, fixed_round, 3 defender bits 1,073 952 divide, fixed_round, 4 defender bits 487 402 divide, fixed_truncate, 3 defender bits 0 651 divide, no defender bits 0 7,785 

0.125 / 1.875 in ufixed (3 downto -3) returns 0.0625. The quotient is 0.0667, and the nearest figure the outcome can clasp is 0.0703.

The quotient is an entire figure division carried to the defender bits (lines 604 and 646), and the rounding sees those bits and not the remainder of the division. Guard bits of 100 alongside a remainder rearward them are complete the midway point, and they are rounded as a tie, to even. That is concerning one quotient in twenty alongside the default three defender bits. A signed division cuts toward zero and resize afterward cuts toward minus infinity, so alongside fixed_truncate a negative quotient goes one way or the another depending on anywhere its defender bits end.

fixed_generic_pkg-body.patch gives the two distinct functions one additional bit below the defender bits, set whenever the division leaves a remainder, and takes a negative signed quotient that is not exact downward to the next lesser figure before resize rounds or cuts it. reciprocal calls divide. With it nothing is incorrect in the 751,418 calls, and GHDL and NVC compose the identical outcome document alongside either package.

sh run_fixed.sh ghdl /path/to/ieee # 41026 incorrect in 751418 operations, afterward 0 incorrect in 751418 operations sh run_fixed.sh nvc /path/to/ieee 

tb_fixed.vhd is the testbench and fixed_exact.py the reference.

GHDL or NVC, Python 3.9 or later, and the three records float_generic_pkg.vhdl, float_generic_pkg-body.vhdl and float_pkg.vhdl from the directory ieee of the IEEE repository or from lib/ghdl/src/ieee2008 of a GHDL installation.

sh run.sh ghdl /path/to/ieee 100 # plain.vhd, afterward 100 vectors per operation, format and style: fractional a minute sh run.sh nvc /path/to/ieee 10000 # the tables above 

With 100 the final lines peruse 3696 incorrect and 8 stops in 34440 operations for the bundle as shipped and 0 incorrect and 0 stops in 34440 operations for the patched one, in the two simulators. NVC is the faster of the two on the ample runs: the shipped sqrt and distinct activity in fixed item and are dilatory in float128.

run.sh compiles the patched build into a archive of its own, patched, beside the declaration it belongs to, and runs all testbench twice: against the bundle the simulator ships and against that library. tb_float_pkg.vhd says one procedure per row and writes the result; exact.py run restarts it rearward a row that stops the simulator.

python3 exact.py gen 2026 10000 5,10 8,23 11,52 15,112 > vectors.txt # the vectors of the tables above python3 exact.py all 3,3 > vectors.txt # all operand of the 7-bit format python3 exact.py inspect vectors.txt results.txt 

To use the patched bundle in a design, compile float_generic_pkg.vhdl and the patched build into a archive and instantiate float_pkg from it, as run.sh does.

remainder, modulo, Logb, Nextafter, the comparisons, the conversions alongside genuine and alongside fixed point, the content input and output, operands of two distinct formats in one call, and check_error false.

The VHDL-93 type of the package, float_pkg_c.vhdl in FPHDL/fphdl, carries the identical lines. It was not run here.

To the IEEE P1076 operating collection on 13 November 2026 as VHDL-Issues#388 and by mail, and as ghdl/ghdl#3486, nickg/nvc#1758 and FPHDL/fphdl#4.