Resistance Training Prescription for Muscle Function, Hypertrophy in Health

Abstract

Purpose:

The purpose of this overview of reviews was to find the effect of guidance training (RT) medicine connected musculus usability and hypertrophy, utilizing grounds synthesis methods. It updates the American College of Sports Medicine 2009 Position Stand, “Progression models successful guidance training for patient adults.”

Data sources:

Ovid MEDLINE(R) ALL, Ovid Emcare, Ovid Embase, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science Core Collection existent to October 2024.

Eligibility criteria:

Eligible systematic reviews synthesized randomized tests of patient adults (≥18 yr) who completed RT (≥6 wk; range: 6–52 wk), compared pinch a group that completed nary workout aliases an replacement RT program, and reported the alteration successful musculus function, size, aliases beingness performance.

Results:

We synthesized information from 137 systematic reviews (>30,000 participants). Compared pinch nary workout (control), RT importantly improved musculus strength, size (hypertrophy), power, endurance, contraction velocity, gait speed, balance, and aggregate beingness usability outcomes. Few RT medicine (RTx) variables affected superior adaptations. However, voluntary spot was enhanced by lifting heavier loads (≥80% one-repetition maximum), done a complete scope of motion, for 2–3 sets, astatine the opening of training sessions, and ≥2 sessions/wk. Muscle hypertrophy was enhanced by higher volumes (≥10 sets/wk) and eccentric overload. Power was enhanced by mean loads (30%–70% one-repetition maximum), low-to-moderate measurement (≤24 repetitions⋅sets), Olympic-style weightlifting, and powerfulness RT (fast concentric phase). Power RT enhanced beingness function. Training to momentary musculus fatigue, instrumentality type, workout complexity, group structure, clip nether tension, humor travel restriction, and periodization did not consistently effect training outcomes.

Conclusions:

Healthy adults should execute progressive RT, pinch adaptable medicine accordant pinch our findings, to amended musculus function, size, and beingness performance. Muscle strength, hypertrophy, power, and definite components of beingness usability tin beryllium enhanced by manipulating the RT variables highlighted.

Keywords: HYPERTROPHY, PHYSICAL FUNCTION, RESISTANCE TRAINING, SKELETAL MUSCLE, STRENGTH

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Exercise is important for wellness passim the quality lifespan, and musculus spot and usability are basal components of fitness. Resistance training (RT), besides known arsenic spot aliases weight training, is simply a specialized method of beingness conditioning successful which muscles are exercised by contracting against outer resistance, specified arsenic free weights, machines, guidance bands, water, aliases assemblage weight, done isometric, isotonic, aliases isokinetic actions, progressively expanding unit output to amended muscular strength, power, endurance, and wide wellness and sports performance. The benefits of RT are being progressively appreciated arsenic health-promoting behaviour (1,2), but were possibly first documented to beryllium beneficial beyond individual spot improvement by Captain Thomas DeLorme, who recognized the benefits of RT successful wounded soldiers (3). Beyond the hallmark improvements successful skeletal musculus wide and function, the benefits of engaging successful RT see reduced mortality and consequence for and guidance of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and glucosuria (4–6), reduced slump (7,8), and improved slumber value (9).

Most guidelines telephone for patient adults to complete “muscle-strengthening activities astatine mean aliases greater strength that impact each awesome musculus groups connected 2 aliases much days a week” (2). Exercise programs are mostly constructed by manipulating six factors comprising the model FITT-VP: Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type, Volume, Pattern, and Progression (10). Prescription of variably RT adaptable (RTx), however, involves respective variables wrong each class that are inherent to immoderate believe of RT. However, a obstruction to engaging successful RT is that group and practitioners often deficiency knowing of really to prescribe RT (5). Thus, RTx guidelines are required to support healthcare practitioners and workout professionals erstwhile designing RT programs.

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) 2009 Position Stand, “Progression Models successful Resistance Training for Healthy Adults” (11), summarized, astatine the time, the disposable grounds for RTx variables, providing guidelines to heighten RT adaptations. Research connected the taxable of RT has expanded importantly since the publication of that Position Stand; successful fact, a elemental PubMed hunt for “resistance training” yields complete 30,000 caller results since 2009, indicating a request for an update. Evidence synthesis methods person besides precocious considerably, and some the existent (11) and anterior (12) Position Stands were criticized (13,14) for lacking evidence-based rigor. Hence, to supply contemporary, evidence-based guidance to minimize bias, an updated RTx Position Stand was required, utilizing modern hunt and grounds grading methodologies.

Provided ample systematic reviews and meta-analyses, an overview of reviews tin systematically summarize an abundance of accusation (13). An overview of reviews (i.e., umbrella review: a reappraisal of systematic reviews) is simply a systematic postulation and appraisal of disposable grounds that provides a comprehensive, user-friendly summary of a investigation topic, enabling practitioners and professionals to make evidence-based decisions without assimilating the results of galore systematic reviews and meta-analyses (14,15).

The intent of this overview of systematic reviews was to supply an updated, evidence-based summary of the effect of RTx variables connected various outcomes applicable to RT successful patient adults. The outcomes of liking included musculus hypertrophy, strength, power, endurance, contraction velocity, and beingness usability (e.g., gait speed, balance, and step climbing). The existent archive updates the ACSM 2009 Position Stand entitled “Progression Models successful Resistance Training for Healthy Adults” (11).

METHODS

Protocol and Registration

This reappraisal was prospectively registered connected the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (INPLASY202360071; https://inplasy.com/inplasy-2023-6-0071/) and conducted successful alignment pinch the Preferred Reporting Items for Overviews of Reviews (PRIOR) (16). The completed PRIOR checklist is contained successful Supplemental Appendix 1, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323.

Eligibility Criteria

The complete eligibility criteria for systematic reviews to beryllium included are shown successful Table 1. Briefly, systematic reviews of randomized tests were included erstwhile patient adults completed an RT programme for astatine slightest 6 wk and were compared pinch a group that completed nary workout (control [CTRL]) aliases a distinctly different RT programme (Table 2; i.e., FITT-VP constituent different betwixt groups). In astir cases, reviews examined group pinch minimal aliases nary RT acquisition (i.e., novice); however, immoderate reviews included much precocious trainees. Previously, we showed that training acquisition had a minimal effect connected spot and hypertrophy outcomes (17); nonetheless, overmuch of the grounds synthesized present is from inexperienced trainees. “Healthy adults” was operationalized arsenic humans (≥18-yr old) pinch nary defined disease(s), including obesity, sarcopenia, and beingness frailty. Body weight-supported RT was a information of immoderate reviews, but was not studied arsenic a stand-alone involution isolated from successful the lawsuit of the Nordic hamstring curl. Standard, aliases nonspecialized, RT was defined arsenic immoderate RT successful eligible reviews that was not specifically defined and frankincense excluded circumstantial forms of RT, including powerfulness RT (explicitly stated concentric shape performed arsenic quickly arsenic possible), Olympic-style weightlifting (RT pinch Olympic-style lifting movements), and velocity-based RT (movement velocity thresholds utilized to prescribe RT). We admit that this is simply a wide meaning that encompasses respective variables, but we person utilized the definitions of the RTx provided wrong the reviews we compared. Eligible reviews needed to study the alteration of astatine slightest 1 musculus usability (e.g., strength, power, and beingness function) aliases musculus size (hypertrophy) result from pre- to postintervention. Unless different specified, spot was voluntary isotonic one-repetition maximum (1RM) successful the aforesaid mode arsenic that successful which the training was performed. Records were defined arsenic a “systematic review” if they were titled arsenic an grounds synthesis (e.g., systematic review, meta-analysis, and umbrella review) aliases utilized a circumstantial systematic hunt strategy and eligibility criteria. The included reviews were not separated by subordinate property owed to the number of eligible systematic reviews that included participants pinch participants who were some younger and older than the cutoff of 55-yr old. Thus, our recommendations are evidence-based crossed each ages.

TABLE 1.

Eligibility criteria for inclusion.

TABLE 2.

Resistance training medicine variables.

Information Sources and Search Strategy

The systematic hunt strategy was executed successful October 2024 successful Ovid MEDLINE(R) ALL (1946 to current), Ovid Emcare (1995 to current), Ovid Embase (1974 to current), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2005 to current), EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science Core Collection. Trained librarians developed the hunt strategies. Searches conducted connected the Ovid level were constricted to English-language records, and nary further limits aliases filters were applied. The complete hunt strategy is reported successful Supplemental Appendix 2, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323.

Record Selection and Data Collection

Four reviewers (B. S. C., C. V. L., A. C. D., and J. P. S.) independently screened each records (title/abstract and afloat text) and extracted information from eligible reviews successful duplicate, pinch discrepancies resolved by group consensus. Relevant information from eligible overlapping records were included and extracted. Authors of reviews pinch missing information were contacted via email pinch a petition for the missing data, and WebPlotDigitizer (version 4; https://automeris.io/) was utilized if information needed to beryllium extracted from figures. Record screening and information extraction were completed utilizing the systematic reappraisal package Covidence (https://www.covidence.org/). The complete database of information items sought is reported successful Supplemental Appendix 3, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323.

Methodological Quality Assessment and Evidence Synthesis

The methodological value of each included reappraisal was assessed independently by 2 reviewers utilizing the AMSTAR (A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews) tool, which yields a people ranging from 1 to 11 that incorporates appraisal of publication bias (Supplemental Appendix 4, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323) (18,19). Outcome information were tabulated arsenic collected, and nary sensitivity analyses were conducted. Heterogeneity was reported arsenic the I2 statistic (meta-analyses) aliases the fraction of reviews showing a important effect (systematic reviews). An outcome-level (bottom-line) connection and standardized effectiveness connection (Supplemental Appendix 5, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323) were produced by considering the methodological value and extracted information (20). Outcome-level value of grounds (QoE) was calculated utilizing a method based connected the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation attack for superior grounds (21). This method incorporates the creation (meta-analysis: yes/no) and methodological value (AMSTAR score) of each included reappraisal (Supplemental Appendix 6, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323). There remains nary standardized method to measure the certainty of grounds successful overviews of reviews (15,22), truthful a summary percent scores were calculated to show the value of grounds contributing to each conclusion. The summary percent was calculated wrong each medicine adaptable for each 3 directions of grounds (impactful, not impactful, and cannot determine) by dividing the mean QoE by 4 (the maximum QoE score) to output a percent people ranging from 0% (lowest imaginable QoE) to 100% (highest imaginable QoE). This method has been utilized successful erstwhile overviews of reviews (18,20,23). The effectiveness (impact) of RTx variables for each result was assessed based connected standardized effectiveness statements and the amount of grounds (24). The reviews, which contributed grounds for the effect of a medicine variable, were independently scrutinized to remark connected favorable RTx parameters for improving each outcome.

Overlap of Papers

An rumor pinch overviews of reviews is the anticipation of “double counting” (or more) papers that are included successful much than 1 reappraisal (25). Such counting whitethorn unduly impact the results of the analysis, resulting successful spurious levels of precision and assurance successful the outcomes (26). We employed the corrected covered area (CCA) scale to quantify the grade of overlap betwixt systematic reviews to beryllium pooled successful an overview of reviews (27). To get an estimate of the grade of publication overlap, we calculated the CCA for spot utilizing the ccaR package (28), arguably the astir applicable result of our analysis.

RESULTS

Included Reviews

The systematic hunt yielded 5751 records pursuing copy removal, and 137 systematic reviews were included successful this overview of reviews (Fig. 1). The AMSTAR scores for included reviews ranged from 1 (lowest) to 9 (highest) retired of a imaginable 11 (Supplemental Appendix 7, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323). The conflict-of-interest connection for each included reappraisal is reported successful Supplementary Appendix 8, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The details, bottom-line statement, standardized effectiveness statement, and QoE for each reappraisal are reported successful the Supplemental Appendices, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323, according to the outcome.

FIGURE 1.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) travel sketch of reappraisal selection.

Strength

CCA study of spot crossed each included reviews showed only “moderate” overlap, defined arsenic betwixt 6% and 10% of superior papers appearing successful 2 aliases much reviews (27). So the results of our analyses for this adaptable (for which location were much reviews than for immoderate different variable) were not unduly affected by superior information overlap.

The effects of RT versus CTRL connected spot and the effect of chopped RTx variables are summarized successful Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 11, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, spot was impacted by engaging successful modular RT (17,24,29–56), circuit RT (57–59), elastic set RT (60–62), home-based RT (63,64), and velocity-based RT (65,66). There were insufficient information to find if eccentric flywheel RT (67), Nordic hamstring RT (68), Olympic-style weightlifting (69), and unstable aboveground RT (70) impacted spot compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, spot was positively affected by training convention wave (24,71–76), load (24,77–84), eccentric flywheel RT versus modular RT (85), scope of mobility (86,87), measurement (24,88–93), and workout bid (24,94–96), but spot was not affected successful programs pinch lifting to fatigue/failure (24,97–99), machines versus free-weight RT (100), unstable surfaces (70), clip nether hostility (24,101), clip of time (24,102), inter-set remainder (24,103), contraction type (24,104), powerfulness training (82,105,106), aliases group building (24,107–109). There were insufficient information to find if spot was affected by humor travel regularisation (110–112), Olympic-style weightlifting (69), intrasession autoregulation (113,114), varied workout action (115), periodization (24,116–118), aliases concurrent training (i.e., aerobic and RT successful the aforesaid training session) (119–124).

TABLE 3.

Resistance training forms that effect strength, hypertrophy and powerfulness erstwhile compared pinch CTRL.

TABLE 4.

Resistance training medicine variables that effect strength, hypertrophy, and powerfulness erstwhile compared pinch modular (nonspecialized) RT.

The effect of unilateral RT connected the untrained, contralateral limb (i.e., cross-education) was only reported for the spot outcome. The effect of RT versus CTRL connected spot successful the untrained contralateral limb is summarized successful Table 3, and results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 11, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Unilateral RT impacted spot (125,126) specified that spot improved successful the untrained, contralateral limb. Comparing RTx, spot was enhanced by RT performed pinch higher wave (≥2 d/wk, though the precocious limit cannot, from our analysis, beryllium undetermined), higher loads (dose-response), eccentric flywheel devices compared pinch modular RT, afloat scope of motion, higher measurement (multiple sets), and astatine the opening of training sessions (compared pinch the extremity of training sessions). Strength was not affected by RT performed pinch contractions to musculus failure/fatigue, free weights versus machines, unstable versus unchangeable surfaces; accelerated (<2 s) versus moderate-slow (>2 s) contractions, greeting versus evening training sessions, short (<1 min) versus agelong (>1 min) between-set remainder intervals, eccentric versus concentric contractions, powerfulness training techniques, aliases different group structures (cluster and complex).

Hypertrophy

The effect of RT versus CTRL connected musculus hypertrophy is summarized successful Table 3, and the effect of chopped RTx variables is summarized successful Table 4. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 12, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, musculus hypertrophy was positively affected by modular RT (17,24,30,32,33,37,38,40,42–47,50,127), circuit RT (57,58), and elastic set RT (60,62). There were insufficient information to find if eccentric flywheel RT (67) impacted musculus hypertrophy compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, musculus hypertrophy was positively affected by contraction type (24,104,128,129) and measurement (24,91,128,130–133), but musculus hypertrophy was not affected by wave (24,73,74,128,131,134,135), load (24,78–81,83,84,128,131,136), absolute fatigue/failure (24,98,99,128,137), humor travel regularisation (110–112), adaptable loading (138), clip nether hostility (24,131,139,140), powerfulness training (105), periodization (24,117,131,141), aliases workout bid (24,94,96,128,131). There were insufficient information to find if musculus hypertrophy was influenced by eccentric flywheel versus modular RT (85), instrumentality versus free-weight RT (100), single-joint versus multijoint RT (128,142), clip of time (24,102,131), inter-set remainder (24,131,143,144), scope of mobility (86,87,128,145), group building (24,107,108,146), intrasession autoregulation (113), varied workout action (115,128), aliases concurrent training (119,120,122,124,147).

Improving hypertrophy

Compared pinch CTRL, hypertrophy was improved by RT, including circuit RT and elastic set RT (Table 6). Between RTx, hypertrophy was enhanced by RT performed pinch eccentric-only contractions (versus concentric-only) and higher measurement (≥10 sets/muscle group/wk). RT did not power hypertrophy performed pinch debased (1 d/wk) versus precocious (>5 d/wk) wave erstwhile full measurement was equated; debased (30% 1RM) to precocious (100% 1RM) loads; contractions to musculus failure/fatigue; humor travel restriction; varying loads during repetitions; accelerated (0.5 s) versus slow (8 s) repetitions; powerfulness training techniques; periodization (linear, undulating, and nonperiodized); aliases workout bid wrong training sessions.

TABLE 6.

Resistance training prescriptions to amended musculus usability and hypertrophy.

Power

The effect of RT versus CTRL connected powerfulness is summarized successful Table 3, and the effect of chopped RTx variables is summarized successful Table 4. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 13, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, powerfulness was enhanced by modular RT (41,48–50,148). There were insufficient information to find whether home-based RT (63) and Olympic-style weightlifting (69) impacted powerfulness compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, powerfulness was affected by load (77,149,150), eccentric flywheel training versus modular RT (85), Olympic-style weightlifting versus modular RT (69), powerfulness training versus modular RT (82,105,148), and measurement (148), but powerfulness was not affected by group building (107,108). There were insufficient information to find if powerfulness was affected by fatigue/failure (99), unstable surfaces (70), aliases concurrent training (123,124,151).

Improving power

RT improved powerfulness compared pinch CTRL (Table 6). Between RTx and powerfulness training, powerfulness was enhanced by RT performed pinch mean loads (30%–70% 1RM), an eccentric flywheel device, Olympic-style weightlifting, and powerfulness training techniques, versus modular RT, and low-to-moderate measurement (repetitions⋅set < 24). Power was not affected by RT performed pinch different group structures (cluster aliases remainder redistribution).

Muscular Endurance

The effect of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected muscular endurance is summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 9, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 14, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, muscular endurance was impacted by modular RT (41,54) and home-based RT (63). There were insufficient information to find whether unstable aboveground RT (70) aliases velocity-based RT (66) impacted muscular endurance compared pinch CTRL. There were insufficient information to find if muscular endurance was affected by load (82), unstable surfaces (70), powerfulness training (82), measurement (82), aliases group building (107,108).

Improving muscular endurance

RT improved muscular endurance compared pinch CTRL.

Gait Speed

The effect of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected gait velocity is summarized successful Table 5. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 15, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, gait velocity was impacted by modular RT (17,30,32,33,36–38,47,53,152–155). There were insufficient information to find whether elastic set RT (62) aliases powerfulness training (156) impacted gait velocity compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if gait velocity was influenced by load (82) aliases powerfulness training versus modular RT (82).

TABLE 5.

Resistance training forms and medicine variables that effect beingness usability outcomes.

Improving gait speed

RT improved gait velocity compared pinch CTRL.

Timed Up-and-Go

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected timed up-and-go (TUG) capacity are summarized successful Table 5. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 16, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, TUG was impacted by modular RT (30,32,33,36,38,47,50,152,154,156). There were insufficient information to find if elastic set RT (62) impacted TUG compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if TUG was affected by load (82) aliases powerfulness training versus modular RT (82,106,157).

Improving timed up-and-go

RT improved TUG compared pinch CTRL.

Chair Stand Test

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected chair guidelines trial capacity are summarized successful Table 5. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 17, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, chair guidelines capacity was impacted by modular RT (30,32,33,36,50,152). In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if chair guidelines capacity was affected by load (82) aliases powerfulness training versus modular RT (82,106,157).

Improving chair guidelines test

RT improved chair guidelines capacity compared pinch CTRL.

Balance

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected equilibrium are summarized successful Table 5. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 18, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, equilibrium was impacted by modular RT (52,54,154) and home-based RT (63). There were insufficient information to find whether unstable surfaces (70) impacted equilibrium compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if unstable surfaces (70) aliases concurrent training (158) affected balance.

Improving balance

RT improved equilibrium compared pinch CTRL.

Stair Climbing

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected step climbing are summarized successful Table 5. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 19, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if step climbing was affected by load (82) aliases powerfulness training versus modular RT (82,157).

Improving step climbing

There were insufficient information to find the effect of RT connected step climbing performance.

Multicomponent Function

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected multicomponent function—the aggregate capacity connected respective beingness usability assessments—are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 9, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 20, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, multicomponent usability was impacted by modular RT (17,24,42,45,159), elastic set RT (60,61), and home-based RT (64). In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, multicomponent usability was affected by elastic set RT (61) and powerfulness training (105,157,160), but was not affected by clip nether hostility (24) aliases measurement (91). There were insufficient information to find if the multicomponent usability was positively affected by load (24), scope of mobility (87), aliases concurrent training (119).

Improving multicomponent function

Compared pinch CTRL, multicomponent usability was improved by RT, including elastic set RT and home-based RT (Table 6). Comparing betwixt RTx, multicomponent usability was enhanced by RT performed pinch powerfulness training techniques, and modular RT enhanced multicomponent usability compared pinch elastic set RT.

Short Physical Performance Battery

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 10, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 21, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, SPPB was not affected by modular RT (30). There were insufficient information to find whether powerfulness training (156) had an effect connected SPPB compared pinch CTRL. In comparing different RTx, SPPB was positively affected by powerfulness training (106,157).

Improving short beingness capacity battery

RT did not amended SPPB compared pinch CTRL. Comparing RTx, SPPB was enhanced by RT performed pinch powerfulness training.

Walking Performance

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected stepping trial capacity (e.g., 6-min locomotion test) are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 10, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 22, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, location were insufficient information to find if modular RT (30) aliases elastic set RT (62) impacted stepping capacity compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, stepping capacity was positively affected by powerfulness training (106,157).

Improving stepping performance

Between RTx, stepping capacity was enhanced only by RT performed pinch powerfulness training techniques.

Running Performance

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected moving capacity are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 9, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 23, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, location were insufficient information to find whether modular RT (48,69,161), eccentric flywheel RT (162), and velocity-based RT (66) impacted moving capacity compared pinch CTRL. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, moving capacity was positively affected only by velocity-based RT versus modular RT (65). There were insufficient information to find if moving capacity was affected by eccentric flywheel RT versus modular RT (85), Olympic-style weightlifting versus modular RT (69), group building (109), aliases concurrent training (123).

Improving moving performance

Comparing RTx, moving capacity was enhanced only by velocity-based RT.

Jumping Performance

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected jumping capacity are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 9, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 24, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, jumping capacity was impacted by eccentric flywheel RT (162) and velocity-based RT (66). In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, jumping capacity was positively affected by velocity-based RT versus modular RT (65), but jumping capacity was not affected by group building (108,109). There were insufficient information to find if jumping capacity was affected by load (81), eccentric flywheel RT versus modular RT (85), aliases instrumentality versus free-weight RT (100). We statement that jumping capacity should not beryllium considered arsenic a proxy for musculus power.

Improving jumping performance

Compared pinch CTRL, jumping capacity was improved by eccentric flywheel RT and velocity-based RT (Table 6). Comparing RTx, velocity-based RT enhanced jumping performance; however, jumping capacity was not affected by RT performed pinch different group structures (complex vs cluster).

Contraction Velocity

The effect of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected contraction velocity is summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 10, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 25, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, contraction velocity was positively impacted by modular RT (163). In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if contraction velocity was affected by cluster aliases rest-redistribution group structures (107,108).

Improving contraction velocity

RT improved contraction velocity compared pinch CTRL.

Change of Direction (Agility)

The impacts of RT versus CTRL and chopped RTx variables connected the expertise to alteration guidance are summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 9, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 26, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, location were insufficient information to find whether modular RT (69) aliases eccentric flywheel RT (162) impacted the expertise to alteration direction. In comparisons betwixt chopped RTx, location were insufficient information to find if agility was affected by Olympic-style weightlifting (69).

Improving alteration of guidance (agility)

There were insufficient information to find the effect of RT connected agility.

Functional Reach Test

The effect of RT versus CTRL connected functional scope trial capacity is summarized successful Supplemental Appendix 10, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. The results for each reappraisal are reported successful Supplemental Appendix 27, Supplemental Digital Content, https://links.lww.com/MSS/D323. Compared pinch CTRL, location were insufficient information to find whether modular RT (154) impacted functional scope performance.

Improving functional scope test

There were insufficient information to find the effect of RT connected functional scope trial performance.

DISCUSSION

Resistance training is simply a cardinal constituent of workout programs. It should beryllium a halfway constituent of beingness fittingness programming, arsenic it has broad-reaching benefits for muscular wellness and beingness function. This overview of reviews summarized 137 systematic reviews to find the effect of RTx variables connected musculus usability and hypertrophy successful patient adults. Compared pinch nary exercise, RT improves musculus strength, hypertrophy, power, endurance, contraction velocity, and capacity connected respective beingness usability tests (balance, gait speed, chair stand, and timed up-and-go; Table 3). Additionally, different forms of RT amended aggregate outcomes compared pinch CTRL, including home-based RT, elastic set RT, powerfulness RT (which involves performing the concentric shape quickly), velocity-based RT, and circuit RT (Table 3). Based connected these results, it is evident that galore forms of RT activity to beforehand the superior hallmark outcomes of RT: accrued strength, hypertrophy, and power. Our superior proposal is that patient adults execute RT pinch precocious effort (effort tin beryllium measured done various scales, but tin beryllium achieved pinch various loads and sets per the FITT-VP principle) astatine slightest doubly weekly, pinch each awesome musculus groups being engaged.

Between chopped RT programs, only immoderate RTx variables tin beryllium altered to optimize increases successful musculus usability and hypertrophy (Tables 4 and 6). Significant and optimal improvements are 2 different goals; however, participants and facilitators of RT must separate betwixt them. Compared pinch CTRL, important improvements successful musculus function, hypertrophy, and beingness capacity tin beryllium accomplished pinch the take of galore RT programs. This overview of reviews enhances the value of recommendations for patient adults to importantly summation musculus function, hypertrophy, and beingness capacity by providing current, comprehensive, and evidence-based insights into the effect of RTx variables.

Progressive overload is simply a conception considered basal to RT programming principles. Progressive overload refers to the request to summation the stimulus (stressor) placed upon the musculus passim a training program. Progressive overload is often projected arsenic basal for continued adaptive advancement pinch immoderate shape of workout training arsenic physiological systems accommodate to trim the accent of the workout and build an expanding adaptive consequence (i.e., strength). Such adjustment would require expanding the stimulus, specified arsenic load, volume, training frequency, workout selection, aliases long (even if only slightly), arsenic the musculus continues to accommodate to nutrient further adaptations (164). Modifying an RTx (e.g., expanding comparative load [percentage of one-repetition maximum, %1RM]) tin support progressive overload. Still, the aforesaid comparative load tin besides beryllium sustained erstwhile regular spot testing is performed aliases perceived exertion scales are utilized to summation absolute load commensurate pinch spot gains (113,165). Notably, arsenic the results successful Table 4 highlight, progression is not basal to execute beneficial outcomes, and overload, aliases much accurately, expanding the stimulus successful immoderate manner, is apt a request only for those seeking continued longer word progress. We statement that successful immoderate populations, owed to inexperience (and imaginable information concerns), RTx necessitates that loads are needfully debased and progression is simply a request to execute a meaningful benefit. Continued progression could beryllium a individual determination and portion of the individualization of RTx (see below). A akin commentary could beryllium made astir the “need” for variety of RTx variables (see below).

The rule of specificity states that training adaptations are circumstantial to the training stimulus applied. Some adaptations tin beryllium affected by modifying RTx variables, though location is simply a sizeable carryover of training effects connected wide muscular capacity successful various domains successful nonadvanced trainees (17,24). Individualization involves modifying RT programs to meet the unsocial goals, needs, and characteristics of each individual, specified arsenic their acquisition and capacity level. Individualized programs tin summation workout take and adherence (10), but individualization has been scarcely discussed successful erstwhile Position Stands (11,12). With the accumulation of grounds demonstrating that galore forms of RT are effective for patient adults to amended musculus usability and health, RT programs would ideally beryllium individualized to maximize adherence, enjoyment, safety, and effectiveness circumstantial to training goals.

Variation is the systematic modification of RTx variables complete clip to facilitate continued adaptation. One of the astir communal forms of variety is periodization—intentionally modifying medicine variables (e.g., load, volume, frequency) passim an RT program. The effect of periodization connected spot could not beryllium determined, though 1 reappraisal recovered that periodized programs were somewhat favored complete nonperiodized programs to maximize spot gains nether volume-equated conditions (117). With due progressive overload, periodization is not importantly superior to nonperiodized programs; thus, periodization is little important than antecedently hypothesized (11,12) for patient adults to amended musculus usability and hypertrophy. We note, however, that definitions of periodization alteration (166,167), but broadly impact the systematic manipulation of RTx variables pinch the extremity of optimizing capacity adaptations, managing fatigue, preventing overtraining/injury, and peaking for circumstantial goals. Thus, it whitethorn beryllium that the ordering of variables wrong a fixed RTx to execute definite goals is understudied compared pinch the outcomes contained successful the reviews we examined. We besides statement that periodization and programming are often conflated (168), which whitethorn person been the lawsuit successful immoderate reviews.

Resistance training improves galore measures of musculus usability and tin consequence successful hypertrophy compared pinch nary workout (Fig. 2). Provided the strikingly debased RT information levels (169–173), individuals and practitioners alike should admit the tremendous benefits of completing RT of various forms compared pinch nary exercise. Additionally, nontraditional forms of RT besides output marked benefits—for example, elastic set RT has been shown to summation strength, hypertrophy, and definite components of beingness function. Similarly, home-based RT improved strength, muscular endurance, and balance. Nontraditional forms of RT whitethorn supply alternative, possibly much accessible aliases approachable, strategies for completing RT pinch appreciable beingness benefits.

FIGURE 2.

Schematic practice of the modes of RT and the outcomes that are positively influenced by engaging successful regular RT.

We build connected respective aspects of the 2009 ACSM Position Stand (11), which aimed to supply evidence-based RTx guidelines for patient adults wishing to advancement beyond the first 3–4 months of training. Previous guidelines person recommended patient adults usage free weights and machines to complete 2 to 3 RT sessions per week, pinch 8 to 10 exercises involving awesome musculus groups per session, 1 to 4 sets per exercise, 8 to 20 repetitions per set, 2–3 min remainder betwixt sets, loads 40%–70% 1RM, and travel the principles of progressive overload, specificity, and variety (10,11). Current estimates (from self-report) are that only ~30% of American adults complete immoderate muscle-strengthening activities astatine slightest 2 d/wk, and astir 60% complete nary muscle-strengthening workout (169–173). Estimates for older persons vary; however, information from the UK, United States, and Australia put information rates from arsenic debased arsenic 1% to arsenic precocious arsenic 40% (174). We fishy that rates of information among older persons for the types of RT programs we outline present are apt 10%–15% (175). Notably, others person estimated that processing wide muscular fittingness (strength, hypertrophy, and power) according to erstwhile ACSM guidelines may, successful immoderate cases, require training for 20 h aliases much per week (176). Thus, the recommendations of the erstwhile Position Stand (10,11) whitethorn beryllium little applicable for astir adults, peculiarly older adults, galore of whom do not prosecute successful RT. The circumstantial programme specifications outlined successful erstwhile Position Stands whitethorn beryllium an due starting constituent for immoderate individuals; however, respective different RT programs, arsenic evidenced here, tin besides beryllium effective.

Deviating from erstwhile guidelines, we propose that individualizing programs to summation RT information is, from our perspective, much important than conforming to circumstantial RTx criteria outlined successful erstwhile Position Stands. Research connected RTx reveals that “minimal doses” of RT are capable to bring astir important strength, hypertrophy, and beingness functional gains (177). We propose that our stance astir encouraging information successful RT is underscored by the expanding knowledge of wellness benefits, immoderate of which are unsocial to RT (4–6). The recommendations presented present use to patient adults, ranging from complete novices (with nary acquisition pinch RT) to knowledgeable trainees, and support the take of a overmuch broader scope of RT programs to amended wide muscular strength, function, and hypertrophy. Advances alteration a much broad knowing of really RTx adaptable manipulation affects outcomes. For example, the erstwhile Position Stand recommended novice lifters complete 2 to 3 full-body sessions per week for musculus hypertrophy, and this proposal was graded arsenic the highest imaginable value of grounds (11). However, this proposal was informed by only 3 studies (178–180) (n = 59 full participants), and 2 of the studies did not analyse wave (178,179). In contrast, we coming guidelines suitable for galore patient adults, supported by ample superior evidence, that were formulated pinch starring grounds synthesis methodologies.

Resistance training is safe for patient adults of each ages (5), but galore adults, peculiarly older adults, debar RT owed to misperceptions astir information and wounded risks (181). In an study of >38,000 participants (>6700 RT participants), of which >11,000 were older adults, workout did not summation the consequence of superior adverse events. The consequence of nonserious adverse events (e.g., pain, fatigue, bursitis, and edema) was not different than aerobic workout successful position of wounded complaint aliases consequence (182). Nonfatal cardiovascular complications besides hap overmuch little often during RT than aerobic training (5,183). In 23 studies (n = 1174) of adults pinch coronary bosom disease, each 63 nonfatal cardiovascular complications occurred during aerobic training, and the 20 musculoskeletal complications that occurred during RT were caused by preexisting conditions (knee arthritis) and were resolved by changing RT strength aliases assemblage position (183). Clearly, RT tin beryllium safe and effective for patient adults of each ages.

This overview of reviews summarized RTx variable-level evidence, an attack that prevents statistical insights into the comparative effectiveness (e.g., dose-response) of individual RT variables. Nuanced specifications of RT protocols and dose-response information require chat for practitioners designing RT programs to heighten adaptations, since immoderate features of RTx are not reflected successful variable-level summaries. For example, RT wave was recovered to effect strength; however, location was insufficient grounds to reason a dose-response relationship, and the effect is diminished erstwhile measurement is equated (73,76,90).

Load (often utilized synonymously pinch intensity) has many times been shown to effect spot much than different RT adaptations (17,83,184). Load has typically been quantified arsenic a %1RM aliases repetition maximum. Several methods person been utilized to person loads betwixt %1RM and repetition maximum (17,184,185), including a caller study that considered exercise-specific conversions and between-subject variability (186). The number of repetitions performed wrong a fixed group is inherently and inversely related to load, provided a fixed load and near-fatiguing effort are applied; however, not each adaptations are enhanced by fatiguing efforts (e.g., powerfulness and strength). Practitioners should see the rule of specificity erstwhile designing RT programs to execute circumstantial outcomes.

Increasing the number of sets (volume) per workout positively impacted spot (88–93) and hypertrophy (24,128,131–133), which aligns pinch a caller study by Swinton et al. (184). Clearly, 1 group is superior to zero sets (CTRL), and 2 sets are superior to 1 group (17,24,88–93,128,131–133), but the nonstop number of sets required to optimize adaptations cannot beryllium ascertained. A meta-regression (187) of the effect of measurement (weekly) sets showed progression, but arsenic expected, a dose-response that plateaued and showed diminishing returns beyond ~2–3 sets/exercise for spot and ~18–20 play sets for hypertrophy pinch varying loads; thus, patient adults are advised to complete astatine slightest 2 sets per exercise. Completing much than 2 sets per workout whitethorn supply further benefits, but we hypothesize that these benefits diminish pinch each consequent set. Weekly measurement load—the full magnitude of load lifted successful each week of training, defined by load/rep • reps/set • sets/exercise • exercises/session • sessions/week—which would presumably correspond the complete practice of “dose” of RT—was seldom considered successful included reviews.

Completing sets to fatigue (momentary muscular failure) does not heighten gains successful strength, hypertrophy, and power, and truthful is not basal for benefits to occur. It whitethorn besides beryllium that lifting to fatigue is inadvisable for definite populations (e.g., older individuals) owed to risks to vascular wellness and an accrued consequence of wounded resulting from mediocre shape (24,97–99). We propose that an capable stimulus (the effort to meet the minimum stressor) is required to induce adaptations. Sufficient effort (assessed utilizing various scales) tin beryllium accomplished by completing sets pinch various RTx and completion of “near-failure” aliases a target of 2–3 repetitions successful reserve (RIR) (24,97–99,128,137,188–190).

Blood travel regularisation protocols often comparison different loads (e.g., higher load RT versus BFR pinch little load), truthful the individual effect of BFR cannot beryllium distinguished from the load successful galore cases. Similarly, flywheel RT typically involves eccentric overload, truthful the individual effect of flywheel RT and contraction type cannot beryllium distinguished. Evidence-based conclusions connected these matters cannot beryllium wished pinch the disposable data, but information is warranted erstwhile designing RT programs and conducting early research. Notably, these considerations tin beryllium mostly overlooked erstwhile designing RT programs for astir adults who are inexperienced pinch RT. Untrained individuals will use from various RT programs, provided that progression, the variables outlined present arsenic affecting outcomes, and adherence are halfway principles.

Limitations should beryllium considered erstwhile interpreting the results presented successful this analysis. Overviews of reviews supply beardown (larger aliases accordant effects) pooled, group-level evidence, truthful that due deviations from the reported recommendations will beryllium required connected various occasions, successful accordance pinch the rule of individualization. We admit that immoderate RT programme would request to beryllium tailored to an individual’s needs and goals. Not discussed here, but of paramount importance, is the knowing and acknowledgment of the captious domiciled adherence plays successful immoderate RT program. Such considerations are beyond the scope of this review, but activity has been done to analyse this important area (191,192).

The totality of grounds successful overviews of reviews is constricted to interventions and outcomes summarized by systematic reviews. For example, the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) is simply a communal appraisal utilized successful randomized trials; however, only 2 eligible reviews person synthesized the results of the SPPB. When evaluating the results of this review, it would lead 1 to reason that RT does not amended SPPB performance; however, this conclusion apt reflects the sparseness of evidence, alternatively than a existent null effect. We statement that location was ample grounds for individual components of the SPPB—gait speed, balance, and chair guidelines tests—and RT improved each these components. Overviews of reviews are besides constricted by overlapping evidence. While we estimated this overlap utilizing the CCA method for strength, we did not do truthful for different variables. We admit that be aware is needed erstwhile examining different outcomes for which we supply nary CCA analysis. Individual studies included successful aggregate eligible reviews could inflate the grounds supporting aliases refuting conclusions; for example, 3 reviews were included connected the effect of RT clip of time connected hypertrophy (24,102,131), but 2 reviews (24,131) synthesized 1 original reappraisal (102). Overlapping information are an rumor successful overviews of reviews, and methods are being developed to amended exercise-related overviews of reviews (193,194). Overviews of reviews do not licence inferences astir the comparative effectiveness of different interventions (14). This reappraisal summarizes the individual effect of RTx variables; however, replacement information synthesis methods are required to formulate evidence-based conclusions connected the comparative effects of aggregate RTx. For example, web meta-analysis tin beryllium leveraged to statistically comparison and rank the efficacy of unsocial RT programs (17). Reviews included successful this overview of reviews were constricted to patient adults. Provided capable evidence, early guidelines tin beryllium developed for further subpopulations (e.g., older adults and objective populations). There was insufficient grounds to shape recommendations connected emerging RTx strategies; for example, various minimal-dose RT programs warrant further investigation and information erstwhile individualizing RT programs (195). The method of testing muscular endurance (e.g., absolute vs relative, pre- vs postintervention strength) was not accounted for successful the information synthesis and should beryllium considered erstwhile designing early studies (196).

Methods to quantify load based connected proximity to muscular nonaccomplishment (e.g., RIR, perceived exertion) are appealing because they could construe to various RT forms (e.g., elastic set aliases assemblage weight RT). While training to nonaccomplishment is not obligatory for optimizing results, location is insufficient grounds to quantify nonstop RIR and perceived exertion targets (189,190,197,198). The disposable grounds did not comparison chopped assemblage regions aliases musculus groups. In the position of the authors, applying the recommendations herein to the assemblage regions “upper” and “lower” for “push” and “pull” exercises (i.e., 4 assemblage regions) is capable to target awesome musculus groups. The activity directions “horizontal” and “vertical” whitethorn besides beryllium considered for precocious assemblage exercises (i.e., six assemblage regions). The regions and movements we urge should align pinch the FITT-VP rule successful position of RTx, which could beryllium a per-training-session request aliases a per-week requirement, depending connected individual goals, training status, age, and different applicable variables.

We besides request to admit that randomized tests successful sports and workout medicine-related fields are often mediocre value pinch mini sample sizes, mediocre randomization methodology, deficiency of preregistration, mediocre reporting of adverse events, and different shortcomings (199), and overmuch remains to beryllium done successful position of the behaviour of grounds syntheses (200,201). Guidelines person been developed to amended the reporting of workout trials, and we would promote their take (202). Consequently, cohesive QoE evaluations, specified arsenic pooling Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation assessments (14), were not possible. Field-specific guidelines for grounds syntheses person emerged and will proceed to beryllium developed (203). Nonetheless, to amended the value of grounds that informs guidelines and champion practices arsenic a field, a higher, much rigorous modular of proceedings behaviour and grounds syntheses are required successful the section of RT.

This overview of reviews represents, to date, the astir broad summary of the effect of RTx variables connected musculus usability and hypertrophy successful patient adults. RT greatly enhances wide muscular wellness compared pinch nary exercise, and only a fewer RTx variables tin beryllium manipulated to heighten adaptations successful knowledgeable trainees. Therefore, individuals should prioritize completing immoderate shape of RT to amended musculus usability and hypertrophy. Exercise and healthcare practitioners tin supply invaluable guidance by leveraging these conclusions to beforehand RT information and adherence, helping adults of each ages amended their wellness and fitness.

This article is being published arsenic an charismatic pronouncement of the American College of Sports Medicine. This pronouncement was reviewed for the American College of Sports Medicine by members-at-large and the Pronouncements Committee. Care has been taken to corroborate the accuracy of the accusation presented and to picture mostly accepted practices. However, the authors, editors, and patient are not responsible for errors aliases omissions aliases for immoderate consequences from the exertion of the accusation successful this publication and make nary warranty, expressed aliases implied, pinch respect to the currency, completeness, aliases accuracy of the contents of the publication. The exertion of this accusation successful a peculiar business remains the master work of the practitioner; the objective treatments described and recommended whitethorn not beryllium considered absolute and cosmopolitan recommendations. B. S. C. was supported by an Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship-Doctoral. S. M. P. acknowledgment the Canada Research Chairs programme for its support and acknowledges assistance support from NSERC and CIHR. No circumstantial root of backing was utilized for this work. B. J. S. formerly served connected the technological advisory committee for Tonal Corporation, a shaper of fittingness equipment. No different authors reported conflicts applicable to this work. M. A. F. S., E. S. R., B. J. S., A. E. S. R., G. A. T., N. T. T., T. A. W., T. J. W., and S. M. P. designed and conceived the review; B. S. C. undertook the hunt of articles; B. S. C., A. C. D., C. V. L., and J. S. extracted data; B. S. C. synthesized data; B. S. C., M. A. F. S., E. S. R., B. J. S., A. E. S. R., G. T., N. T. T., T. A. W., T. J. W., and S. M. P. reviewed grounds recommendations; B. S. C. and S. M. P. wrote manuscript; B. S. C., A. C. D., M. A. F. S., C. V. L., E. S. R., B. J. S., A. E. S. R., J. S., G. A. T., N. T. T., T. A. W., T. J. W., and S. M. P. reviewed manuscript. The results of the study are presented clearly, honestly, and without fabrication, falsification, aliases inappropriate information manipulation. The results of the coming study do not represent endorsement by the American College of Sports Medicine.

Supplementary Material

Footnotes

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